XING LONG TANG - Transmission outside the scriptures (Bodhidharma and Chan)



   



TanĂ­tĂĄs az Ă­rĂĄsokon kĂ­vĂŒl (Bodhidharma è©æé”çŁš Ă©s Chan çŠȘ)

Based on Chen Mingxin's (陈明信, Piya Tan) 2008 essay

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Bodhidharma 菩提達磨

Itt a csan (çŠȘ) felemelkedĂ©sĂ©t fogjuk megvizsgĂĄlni; kĂŒlönös figyelmet Ă©rdemel a TathĂĄgata-chan (rĂșlĂĄi chĂĄn ćŠ‚äŸ†çŠȘ) ĂĄtalakulĂĄsa pĂĄtriĂĄrka-chan -nĂĄ (ç„–ćž«çŠȘ), valamint az a folyamat, ahogyan a kĂ­nai chan aranykora sorĂĄn az Ƒs (pĂĄtriĂĄrka) alakja tĂ©nylegesen ĂĄtvette a Buddha helyĂ©t.


I. – BODHIDHARMA (è©æé”çŁš) ÉS A CHAN (çŠȘ) VONAL

Bodhidharma (kĂ­naiul: PĂștĂ­dĂĄmĂł è©æé”çŁš, vagy egyszerƱen DĂĄmĂł 達磹; i.sz. 5. szĂĄzad eleje) a csan (ChĂĄn çŠȘ) legkorĂĄbbi Ă©s egyik legmeghatĂĄrozĂłbb legendĂĄs alakja, akit a hagyomĂĄny szerint a tanĂ­tĂĄs KĂ­nĂĄba hozĂłjĂĄnak tekintenek. ValĂłjĂĄban nagyon keveset tudunk rĂłla, Ă©s egyetlen kortĂĄrs forrĂĄs sem maradt fenn, amely emlĂ­tĂ©st tenne rĂłla. A kĂ©sƑbbi beszĂĄmolĂłkra sƱrƱ legendĂĄk rakĂłdtak, de a legtöbb forrĂĄs egyetĂ©rt abban, hogy dĂ©l-indiai vagy perzsa szerzetes volt, aki DĂ©l-KĂ­nĂĄba utazott, majd onnan Ă©szak felĂ© vette az irĂĄnyt. A hagyomĂĄnyos forrĂĄsok nem Ă©rtenek egyet abban, pontosan mikor Ă©rkezett KĂ­nĂĄba. Egy korai beszĂĄmolĂł szerint a Liu Szung-korszakban (LiĂș SĂČng 抉漋, 420–479) Ă©rkezett, mĂ­g kĂ©sƑbbi iratok a Liang-dinasztia (LiĂĄng æą, 502–557) idejĂ©re teszik jövetelĂ©t, de tevĂ©kenysĂ©ge elsƑsorban az Északi Vej (Northern WĂši 386–534) terĂŒletĂ©re koncentrĂĄlĂłdott. A modern tudomĂĄny az 5. szĂĄzad elejĂ©re datĂĄlja Ƒt, Ă­gy a 6. szĂĄzadot nevezhetjĂŒk „Bodhidharma Ă©vszĂĄzadĂĄnak”. Egy ismert törtĂ©net szerint Bodhidharma, miutĂĄn nem sikerĂŒlt kedvezƑ benyomĂĄst tennie DĂ©l-KĂ­nĂĄban, Ă©szaknak fordult az Északi Vej felĂ©, Ă©s a Saolin kolostor (ShĂ olĂ­n sĂŹ ć°‘æž—ćŻș) melletti barlangban telepedett le. Ehhez a korszakhoz kötƑdnek azok a legendĂĄk is, amelyek a kĂ­nai kungfu kialakulĂĄsĂĄt az Ƒ nevĂ©hez fƱzik. A barlangban a hagyomĂĄny szerint „kilenc Ă©vig ĂŒlt a fallal szemben, Ă©s ez idƑ alatt egy szĂłt sem szĂłlt”. A legenda egyik vĂĄltozata szerint a hosszĂș meditĂĄciĂł következtĂ©ben a lĂĄbai elsorvadtak – ezĂ©rt nincsenek lĂĄbai a kelet-ĂĄzsiai Daruma-babĂĄknak, az Ășgynevezett „keljfeljancsiknak” (bĂčdǎowēng 侍怒翁). Egy mĂĄsik hĂ­res legenda szerint a kilencĂ©vnyi „falnĂ©zĂ©s” hetedik Ă©vĂ©ben elaludt. ÖnmagĂĄra haragudva levĂĄgta a szemhĂ©jait, hogy ez ne ismĂ©tlƑdhessen meg. Úgy tartjĂĄk, ahol a szemhĂ©jai a földre hullottak, ott nƑttek ki az elsƑ teacserjĂ©k; a tea pedig ettƑl fogva serkentƑkĂ©nt segĂ­tette a csan-tanĂ­tvĂĄnyokat, hogy Ă©berek maradjanak a meditĂĄciĂł alatt. HalĂĄlĂĄrĂłl is csak legendĂĄkbĂłl Ă©rtesĂŒlĂŒnk: az egyik szerint a kilenc Ă©v leteltĂ©vel Bodhidharma „egyenesen ĂŒlve tĂĄvozott az Ă©lƑk sorĂĄbĂłl”. Egy mĂĄsik törtĂ©net szerint egyszerƱen eltƱnt, hĂĄtrahagyva az Icsin csing-et (YĂŹjÄ«n JÄ«ng 易筋經, szĂł szerint: Inak MegvĂĄltoztatĂĄsĂĄnak Könyve), egy csikung (qĂŹgƍng æ°ŁćŠŸ) kĂ©zikönyvet (bĂĄr ennek eredetisĂ©gĂ©t több harcmƱvĂ©szet-törtĂ©nĂ©sz is kĂ©tsĂ©gbe vonja).

A CHAN NÉGYSOROSA

Bodhidharma verse

A hagyomĂĄnyos csan (ChĂĄn çŠȘ) felfogĂĄs szerint a hĂ­res nĂ©gysoros vers vagy a „nĂ©gy szlogen” BodhidharmĂĄtĂłl szĂĄrmazik, Ă©s ezek sƱrĂ­tik össze a tanĂ­tĂĄs lĂ©nyegĂ©t. Ez a versszak jelöli ki a csan egyedĂŒlĂĄllĂł helyĂ©t a buddhista iskolĂĄk között:

    æ•™ć€–ćˆ„ć‚ł (JiĂ owĂ i biĂ©tuĂĄn)
    äžç«‹æ–‡ć­— (BĂčlĂŹ wĂ©nzĂŹ)
    盎指äșș濃 (ZhĂ­zhǐ rĂ©nxÄ«n)
    芋性成䜛 (JiĂ nxĂŹng chĂ©ngfĂł)

    „KĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄs a tanĂ­tĂĄsokon (iratokon) kĂ­vĂŒl
    Nem tĂĄmaszkodik Ă­rott szavakra
    KözvetlenĂŒl az emberi szĂ­vre (tudatra) mutat
    Felismerni sajĂĄt termĂ©szetĂŒnket Ă©s elĂ©rni a buddhasĂĄgot.”

    T2008.360a24-360c12 & 2008.364c9-364c24

Az ortodox csan nĂ©zeteket követƑ kortĂĄrs szerzƑk ezt a nĂ©gysorost a Tang-idƑszak termĂ©kĂ©nek tekintik, amely a csan felemelkedĂ©sĂ©t tĂŒkrözi annak 8. Ă©s 9. szĂĄzadi „aranykora” sorĂĄn. ValĂłjĂĄban ezek a szlogenek kĂŒlön-kĂŒlön mĂĄr felbukkantak a Szung-kort megelƑzƑ mƱvekben is, de összefĂŒggƑ nĂ©gysoroskĂ©nt csak a Szung-dinasztia derekĂĄn jelennek meg. Ekkor tulajdonĂ­tottĂĄk Ƒket BodhidharmĂĄnak a Fanghuj (FānghuĂŹ æ–č會, 992–1064) csan mester mondĂĄsait tartalmazĂł gyƱjtemĂ©nyben, amely a Mu-an Sancsing (MĂč‘ān ShĂ nqÄ«ng 睊ćș”斄捿) ĂĄltal 1108-ban összeĂĄllĂ­tott „Krestomatia a pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄk csarnokĂĄbĂłl” (ZǔtĂ­ngshĂŹyuĂ n ç„–ćș­äș‹è‹‘) cĂ­mƱ mƱben maradt fenn. Eredetileg a korai Szung-kori tudĂłs-szerzetes, Zanning (ZĂ nnĂ­ng èŽŠćŻ§, 919–1001) volt az, aki e vers hĂĄrom sorĂĄt BodhidharmĂĄnak tulajdonĂ­totta.

    盎指äșș濃 (ZhĂ­zhǐ rĂ©nxÄ«n)
    芋性成䜛 (JiĂ nxĂŹng chĂ©ngfĂł)
    äžç«‹æ–‡ć­— (BĂčlĂŹ wĂ©nzĂŹ)

    „KözvetlenĂŒl az emberi szĂ­vre (tudatra) mutat
    Felismerni sajĂĄt termĂ©szetĂŒnket Ă©s elĂ©rni a buddhasĂĄgot
    Nem támaszkodik írott szavakra.”

Fontos megjegyezni, hogy az elsƑ sor – „KĂŒlön [egyedi] ĂĄtadĂĄs a tanĂ­tĂĄsokon kĂ­vĂŒl” – hiĂĄnyzott ebbƑl az Ƒsi versvĂĄltozatbĂłl. Ahogy mĂĄr emlĂ­tettĂŒk, ez a sor mĂĄr a kezdetektƑl fogva vitatott volt. A leggyakoribb sor az utolsĂł, pontosabban annak elsƑ fele – „felismerni sajĂĄt termĂ©szetĂŒnket” (jiĂ n xĂŹng 芋性) – volt, amely valĂłjĂĄban egy rĂ©gi taoista eszme, s melyet a taoista mƱveltsĂ©gĂ©rƑl ismert Daosheng (DĂ oshēng 道生, 355–434), KumārajÄ«va tanĂ­tvĂĄnya nĂ©pszerƱsĂ­tett. A teljes sor („felismerni sajĂĄt termĂ©szetĂŒnket Ă©s elĂ©rni a buddhasĂĄgot”) elƑször a NirvĂĄna-szĂștra egy kommentĂĄrjĂĄban jelent meg, egy kogurjĂłi szerzetesnek, Senglang-nak (Sēnglǎng ćƒ§æœ—, 5–6. sz.) tulajdonĂ­tva, mĂ©g a Tang-dinasztia elƑtt. A kĂ©t közĂ©psƑ sor pedig csak a Tang-kor vĂ©gĂ©n vĂĄlt szĂ©les körben ismerttĂ©.

A vitatott elsƑ sorrĂłl azt mondtĂĄk, hogy Linji Yixuan (LĂ­njĂŹ YĂŹxuĂĄn, megh. 867) sĂ­rfeliratĂĄn szerepel, ĂĄm Yanagida Seizan, a neves japĂĄn Zen-kutatĂł rĂĄmutatott, hogy e felirat törtĂ©nelmi hitelessĂ©ge rendkĂ­vĂŒl bizonytalan. Bizonyosabb azonban, hogy ez a sor dokumentĂĄltan elƑször a 952-es „PĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄk csarnokĂĄnak antolĂłgiĂĄjĂĄban” (ZǔtĂĄng jĂ­) jelenik meg, majd az 1004-es „LĂĄmpĂĄs ĂĄtadĂĄsĂĄnak feljegyzĂ©sĂ©ben” (JǐngdĂ© chuĂĄndēng lĂč) is felbukkan. Ma mĂĄr biztosak vagyunk benne, hogy ez a sor nem Bodhidharma, nem Linji Ă©s nem is a Tang-kori csan hagyomĂĄny szĂŒlemĂ©nye; valĂłjĂĄban valĂłszĂ­nƱleg nem korĂĄbbi a Tang-korszĂ©lnĂ©l. A 12. szĂĄzad elejĂ©re a „kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄs a tanĂ­tĂĄsokon kĂ­vĂŒl” eszmĂ©jĂ©nek BodhidharmĂĄhoz kötĂ©se a Linji-ĂĄg identitĂĄsĂ©pĂ­tĂ©sĂ©nek csĂșcspontja volt. A nĂ©gysoros beillesztĂ©se a Linji-feljegyzĂ©sekbe egyĂ©rtelmƱen a vonalvezetĂ©si legitimĂĄciĂłt szolgĂĄlta a Szung-dinasztia idejĂ©n, hogy sikeresen versenyezhessenek az elit tĂĄmogatĂĄsĂĄĂ©rt.

A vĂ©gĂ©n Ă©rdemes tisztĂĄzni egy fontos terminolĂłgiai kĂ©rdĂ©st: az elsƑ sorban szereplƑ jiĂ o (教) karakter „vallĂĄst” vagy „tanĂ­tĂĄst” jelent, de gyakran hibĂĄsan „szentiratnak” fordĂ­tjĂĄk (ami a jÄ«ng 經 lenne). A mĂĄsodik sorban a wĂ©nzĂŹ (æ–‡ć­—) nem egyszerƱen „szĂłt”, hanem „írott karaktert, Ă­rott szöveget” jelent. MĂĄs szĂłval, a csan nem veti el a szĂștrĂĄkat vagy szentiratokat. Ez azt jelenti, hogy a csan hagyomĂĄny szĂĄmĂĄra – a korai buddhizmushoz hasonlĂłan – a tanĂ­tĂĄs szelleme, nem pedig a tanĂ­tĂĄs szava az igazi ĂĄtadĂĄs. Ezt erƑsĂ­ti meg a következƑ kĂ©t sor is: az ĂĄtadĂĄs az „élƑ szó” ĂĄltal valĂłsul meg, közvetlenĂŒl tanĂĄrtĂłl tanĂ­tvĂĄnynak, embertƑl embernek – nem pedig könyvek vagy egy „halott mĂ©dium” ĂștjĂĄn. Az, hogy a csan Ă©s a zen elutasĂ­tja a szentiratokat, Ă©rdekfeszĂ­tƑ mĂłdon csupĂĄn a nyugati tudomĂĄnyossĂĄg konstrukciĂłja, amely egy egyszerƱ fĂ©lrefordĂ­tĂĄsnak köszönhetƑ! Ez magyarĂĄzhatja azt a tĂ©nyt is, hogy a csan Ă©s a zen a buddhista iskolĂĄk közĂŒl a legterjedelmesebb Ă©s legszĂłszĂĄtyĂĄrabb irodalmi hagyomĂĄnnyal rendelkezik.

WĂșyuĂš (ćłè¶Š), a Fǎyǎn csan (æł•çœŒçŠ…) Ă©s a „mƱvelt szerzetesek” (wĂ©n sēng)

Az Ăłkori KĂ­na egyik legsikeresebb – ha nem a legsikeresebb – buddhista kirĂĄlysĂĄga a WĂșyuĂš kirĂĄlysĂĄg (ćłè¶Š, 907–978) volt, melynek fƑvĂĄrosa HĂĄngzhƍu (æ­ć·ž) volt. WĂșyuĂš kirĂĄlya mĂ©lyen tisztelte Fǎyǎn WĂ©nyĂŹ (æł•çœŒæ–‡ç›Š, 885–958) csan pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄt, Ă©s tanĂ­tĂĄsai nagy hatĂĄssal voltak rĂĄ. ValĂłjĂĄban a 10. szĂĄzadi KĂ­nĂĄt a Fǎyǎn-vonal gyakorlĂłi Ă©s tĂĄmogatĂłi dominĂĄltĂĄk, akik közĂŒl sokan nagy hĂ­rnĂ©vnek Ă©s befolyĂĄsnak örvendtek. A Fǎyǎn-kör a csant az egĂ©sz buddhizmus esszenciĂĄlis csĂșcsĂĄnak tekintette, Ă©s nĂ©lkĂŒlözhetetlen erƑnek tartotta a civilizĂĄlt tĂĄrsadalom megteremtĂ©sĂ©ben. E buddhista utĂłpia lĂĄtomĂĄsĂĄtĂłl vezĂ©relve a WĂșyuĂš uralkodĂłk központi feladatukkĂĄ tettĂ©k a buddhista intĂ©zmĂ©nyek Ă©s helyszĂ­nek Ă©pĂ­tĂ©sĂ©t Ă©s ĂșjjĂĄĂ©pĂ­tĂ©sĂ©t. ÚjjĂĄĂ©pĂ­tettĂ©k a TiāntĂĄi-hegy (ć€©ć°ć±±) komplexumĂĄt, Ă©s Ășj buddhista központokat hoztak lĂ©tre, mint pĂ©ldĂĄul a YǒngmĂ­ng templomot (氞明ćŻș) LĂ­n‘ānban (HĂĄngzhƍutĂłl nyugatra). Követeket kĂŒldtek JapĂĄnba Ă©s KoreĂĄba, hogy gyƱjtsĂ©k össze azon fontos szövegek mĂĄsolatait, amelyek KĂ­nĂĄban mĂĄr nem voltak fellelhetƑk. IdƑvel a WĂșyuĂš-beli monasztikusok komoly hĂ­rnevet szereztek maguknak, Ă©s KĂ­na-szerte vonzottĂĄk a buddhistĂĄkat a kolostoraikba. WĂșyuĂš vezetƑ tisztviselƑje Ă©s szerzetese, ZĂ nnĂ­ng (èŽŠćŻ§), magas rangĂș tisztviselƑ volt a mĂĄsodik Szung csĂĄszĂĄr, TĂ izƍng (ć€Ș漗, uralkodott: 976–997) udvarĂĄban, akit az „irodalom csĂĄszĂĄrakĂ©nt” (wĂ©ndĂŹ æ–‡ćž) is ismertek. A wĂ©n (文 – irodalom, kultĂșra) ĂșjjĂĄĂ©ledĂ©se a korai Szung-korban fontos fordulĂłpontot jelentett a kĂ­nai szellemtörtĂ©netben, amely „mĂĄr a kezdettƑl fogva a nemzeti Ă©rtĂ©kekhez valĂł visszatĂ©rĂ©st Ă©s az ezeket tĂĄrgyalĂł forrĂĄsok tanulmĂĄnyozĂĄsĂĄt jelezte”, Ă©s konszenzus volt abban, hogy ezt a megĂșjulĂĄst a konfuciĂĄnizmusnak kell irĂĄnyĂ­tania. MĂ­g egyesek a purista „klasszikus” kultĂșra (gǔwĂ©n ć€æ–‡) mellett Ă©rveltek, mĂĄsok – köztĂŒk ZĂ nnĂ­ng is – tĂĄgabb szemlĂ©letet javasoltak, amely befogadja az innovatĂ­v formĂĄkat is. Ez volt a „mƱvelt szerzetesek” (wĂ©nsēng æ–‡ćƒ§) idƑszaka. ÉrthetƑ mĂłdon ZĂ nnĂ­ng, aki maga is termĂ©keny literĂĄtor volt, azt javasolta, hogy a buddhizmus legyen rĂ©sze ennek a Szung-kori reneszĂĄnsznak, vagyis kerĂŒljön be a „kultĂșra” (wĂ©n 文) Ășj meghatĂĄrozĂĄsĂĄba, ĂĄm a konfuciĂĄnusok ezt erƑsen elleneztĂ©k. BĂĄr javaslatai nem jĂĄrtak sikerrel, tudĂĄsa Ă©s Ă­rĂĄsai tovĂĄbbra is lenyƱgöztĂ©k Ă©s befolyĂĄsoltĂĄk a csĂĄszĂĄrt Ă©s az udvart. MĂĄs szĂłval, Ƒ maga is a buddhista wĂ©n mestere volt. ZĂ nnĂ­ng szĂĄmos mƱve tĂŒkrözte a kĂ­nai irodalmi hagyomĂĄnyban valĂł szĂ©les körƱ jĂĄrtassĂĄgĂĄt, de sajnos ezen mƱvek egyike sem maradt fenn.

WÚYUÈ: ZÀNNÍNG (èŽŠćŻ§) ÉS YÁNSHÒU (ć»¶ćŁœ)

A WĂșyuĂš-kori csan folytatta a rĂ©gi Tang-hagyomĂĄnyokat, de pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄi kitƱntek a kĂŒlönbözƑ irĂĄnyzatok közötti szinkretista harmonizĂĄciĂł megteremtĂ©sĂ©vel. Ide tartozott a csan Ă©s a HuĂĄyĂĄn (èŻćšŽ) összhangba hozĂĄsa WĂ©nyĂŹ (文益, 885–958) ĂĄltal, a csan Ă©s a TiāntĂĄi (ć€©ć°) közelĂ­tĂ©se DĂ©shĂĄo (ćŸłéŸ¶, 891–972) munkĂĄssĂĄgĂĄban, valamint a csan Ă©s a Tiszta OrszĂĄg (æ·šćœŸ) iskola egysĂ©gesĂ­tĂ©se YĂĄnshĂČu (ć»¶ćŁœ, 904–975) rĂ©vĂ©n. A WĂșyuĂš-fĂ©le csant a Szung-udvarban hivatalosan ZĂ nnĂ­ng kĂ©pviselte. ZĂ nnĂ­ng elfogadta a BodhidharmĂĄnak tulajdonĂ­tott hĂĄromsoros Tang-kori verset (vagyis az elsƑ, „kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄsrĂłl” szĂłlĂł sor nĂ©lkĂŒl), Ă©s Bodhidharma tanĂ­tĂĄsait a SĂĄkjamunitĂłl eredƑ tĂĄgabb hagyomĂĄny egyik ĂĄgakĂ©nt ismerte el. ZĂ nnĂ­ng azon a vĂ©lemĂ©nyen volt, hogy azok, akik a csant a fƑsodratĂș tanĂ­tĂĄsoktĂłl fĂŒggetlennek tartjĂĄk, nem Ă©rtik meg, hogy...

    „A szentiratok a Buddha szavai, a meditáció (csan) pedig a Buddha gondolata:
    semmifĂ©le ellentmondĂĄs nincs aközött, amit a Buddha a tudatĂĄban elgondol, Ă©s aközött, amit a szĂĄjĂĄval kimond.”

    — ZĂ nnĂ­ng (èŽŠćŻ§), T50-790a

ZĂ nnĂ­ng legfƑbb ihletƑje ZƍngmĂŹ (漗毆, 780–841) volt, aki egyszerre volt a csan Ă©s a HuĂĄyĂĄn (èŻćšŽ) iskola pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄja, Ă©s aki a csan, valamint a buddhizmus egĂ©sze közötti harmonikus szinkretizmust hirdette. ZƍngmĂŹ szolgĂĄlt mintakĂ©nt YǒngmĂ­ng YĂĄnshĂČu (æ°žæ˜Žć»¶ćŁœ, 904–975) szĂĄmĂĄra is, aki a WĂșyuĂš-kori csan legfƑbb tekintĂ©lye volt. YĂĄnshĂČu az indiai buddhizmussal összhangban lĂ©vƑ csan-gyakorlatot szorgalmazta, szembehelyezkedve azokkal, akik „azet ĂŒressĂ©ghez ragaszkodtak, Ă©s (akiknek gyakorlata) nem összeegyeztethetƑ a szentiratokkal” (T48.961b) – követve ezzel ZhĂŹyÄ­ Ă©s a TiāntĂĄi (ć€©ć°) iskola tanĂ­tĂĄsait. YĂĄnshĂČu szerint az Ă©bredĂ©shez kĂ©tfĂ©le meditĂĄciĂłs gyakorlatot kell vĂ©gezni: a „nyugalmat” vagy jelensĂ©gszintƱ gyakorlatot (shĂŹ äș‹) Ă©s a „belĂĄtĂĄst” vagy elvi felismerĂ©st (lǐ 理). A nyugalom olyan hĂ©tköznapi tevĂ©kenysĂ©gekbƑl is fakadhat, mint a rituĂĄlis tiszteletadĂĄs. Azoknak, akik „az ĂŒressĂ©ghez ragaszkodnak” – vagyis akik kizĂĄrĂłlag a belĂĄtĂĄs (lǐ) mƱvelĂ©sĂ©nek szenteltĂ©k magukat a hĂ©tköznapi tudatossĂĄg hanyagolĂĄsa mellett –, meg kell tanulniuk lecsendesĂ­teni az elmĂ©jĂŒket, pĂ©ldĂĄul a lĂ©gzĂ©sre valĂł összpontosĂ­tĂĄssal. A meditĂĄciĂłs gyakorlatnak tehĂĄt harmĂłniĂĄban kell ĂĄllnia a nyugalom Ă©s a belĂĄtĂĄs között.

NĂ©hĂĄny WĂșyuĂš-közössĂ©gen kĂ­vĂŒli csan mester a „csan Ă©s a szentiratok harmĂłniĂĄja”, valamint az „iratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄs” koncepciĂłit egymĂĄssal versengƑ ismeretelmĂ©letekkĂ©nt kezelte. Racionalizmus: Az elƑbbi nĂ©zet szerint a szentirat az igazsĂĄg közvetĂ­tĂ©sĂ©nek eszköze. Miszticizmus: Az utĂłbbi szerint a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs tĂșlmutat a szavakon Ă©s a gondolatokon, Ă­gy a szentirat kĂ©ptelen azt ĂĄtadni.

EgyszerƱen fogalmazva: a korai Szung-kori csan-vita arrĂłl szĂłlt, hogy a csan egy racionalista irĂĄnyzat-e, vagy egy fĂŒggetlen misztikus tradĂ­ciĂł. A Szung-kori csant ĂĄltalĂĄban Ășgy mutatjĂĄk be, mint amely elveti a racionalizmust az „iratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄs” javĂĄra, amely „nem tĂĄmaszkodik Ă­rott szavakra”. Ebben a megközelĂ­tĂ©sben mindkĂ©t kifejezĂ©s arra az alapelvre utal, hogy a Buddha ĂĄltal tapasztalt Ă©s a pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄk ĂĄltal tovĂĄbbadott megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs fĂŒggetlen a szĂłbeli magyarĂĄzatoktĂłl, beleĂ©rtve a Buddha tanĂ­tĂĄsait Ă©s a kĂ©sƑbbi doktrĂ­nĂĄkat is.

Ezt a nĂ©zetet a WĂșyuĂš-csan elutasĂ­totta. SzerintĂŒk az „írott szavaktĂłl valĂł fĂŒggetlensĂ©g” Ă©s a „kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄs” elvei egymĂĄsnak ellentmondĂł ötletek voltak. A WĂșyuĂš-csan elfogadta Bodhidharma figyelmeztetĂ©sĂ©t a szentiratokhoz valĂł ragaszkodĂĄs ellen, de nem fogadta el, hogy ez a figyelmeztetĂ©s a szentiratok kategorikus tagadĂĄsĂĄval Ă©rne fel. Ahogy azonban a csan megszilĂĄrdult a Szung-korban, papjai Ă©s tisztviselƑi megkĂ©rdƑjeleztĂ©k a WĂșyuĂš-nĂ©zetet, Ă©s ragaszkodtak a szentiratoktĂłl fĂŒggetlen tradĂ­ciĂłhoz. Röviden: az a nĂ©zet, miszt a csan egy „szentiratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄs” lenne, egy Tang-kor utĂĄni innovĂĄciĂł volt, amelyet a WĂșyuĂš-hagyomĂĄny elutasĂ­tott, Ă©s amelyet ma sem fogadnak el ĂĄltalĂĄnosan. A következƑkben megvizsgĂĄljuk, hogyan Ă©rvelt sikerrel a LĂ­njĂŹ-ĂĄg (è‡šæżŸ) a Szung-korban a „tanĂ­tĂĄsokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄs” hivatalos elismertetĂ©se mellett, egyedĂŒlĂĄllĂł identitĂĄst követelve a csannak a kĂ­nai buddhizmuson belĂŒl.

A CĂĄodĂČng (æ›č掞) felemelkedĂ©se

DĂ huĂŹ Zƍnggǎo (ć€§æ…§ćź—æČ, 1089–1163) kora elƑtt, amikor a gƍng’àn (ć…ŹæĄˆ – koan) mĂłdszere mĂ©g nem volt teljesen kifejlett gyakorlati forma, a csan uralkodĂł irĂĄnyzata a CĂĄodĂČng iskola Ășgynevezett „csendes megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs meditĂĄciĂłja” (mĂČzhĂ o chĂĄn 默照çŠȘ) volt. BĂĄr ez az iskola korĂĄbban elnĂ©ptelenedett, a 12. szĂĄzad elejĂ©n meglepƑ növekedĂ©snek indult, Ă©s annyira virĂĄgzĂĄsnak indult, hogy sikerĂŒlt megnyernie a literĂĄtusok (Ă­rĂĄstudĂł elit) tĂĄmogatĂĄsĂĄt is. Úgy tƱnik, a CĂĄodĂČng ezen ĂșjjĂĄszĂŒletĂ©se zavart okozott a többi csoport, kĂŒlönösen a befolyĂĄsos LĂ­njĂŹ (è‡šæżŸ) vonal körĂ©ben. VĂ©gtĂ©re is, a literĂĄtusok figyelme Ă©s az anyagi forrĂĄsok vĂ©gesek voltak, a CĂĄodĂČng sikere pedig tĂĄmogatĂłkat Ă©s erƑforrĂĄsokat vont el a LĂ­njĂŹ elƑl.

BĂĄr a CĂĄodĂČng felemelkedĂ©se mĂĄr DĂ huĂŹ elƑtt megkezdƑdött, Ƒ csak akkor szembesĂŒlt annak mĂ©rtĂ©kĂ©vel, amikor 1134-ben FĂșjiĂ n (犏ć»ș) tartomĂĄnyba Ă©rkezett. Itt szembesĂŒlt QÄ«ngliǎo ZƍngjuĂ© (æž…äș†ćź—珏, mĂĄs nĂ©ven Zhēnxiē QÄ«ngliǎo 真歇枅äș†, 1091–1152) sikereivel, aki 1130 Ăłta a nagy hĂ­rƱ fĂșzhƍu-i Xuěfēng-kolostor (é›Șćł°ćŻș – HĂłcsĂșcs kolostor) apĂĄtja volt. DĂ huĂŹ kifejezetten neheztelt a CĂĄodĂČng sikereire, Ă©s kĂŒlönösen aggasztotta, hogy az Ă©rtelmisĂ©get magĂĄval ragadta a „csendes megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs” mĂłdszere, amely valĂłjĂĄban egy nagyon hagyomĂĄnyos meditĂĄciĂłs forma volt. DĂ huĂŹ hevesen tĂĄmadta QÄ«ngliǎót Ă©s az Ƒ meditĂĄciĂłs mĂłdszerĂ©t; e kritikĂĄk szinte kivĂ©tel nĂ©lkĂŒl literĂĄtusokhoz intĂ©zett levelek vagy szĂĄmukra tartott beszĂ©dek formĂĄjĂĄban maradtak fenn.

DĂ huĂŹ CĂĄodĂČng elleni tĂĄmadĂĄsainak volt egy Ă©rdekes jellemzƑje: Ă©lesek voltak, de gyakran nĂ©lkĂŒlöztĂ©k a valĂłdi tartalmi Ă©rveket. VegyĂŒk pĂ©ldakĂ©nt ezt a jellegzetes rĂ©szletet egyik literĂĄtusokhoz Ă­rt levelĂ©bƑl:

    „Az eretnek tanĂ­tĂłk arra oktatjĂĄk a literĂĄtusokat, hogy szabĂĄlyozzĂĄk elmĂ©jĂŒket Ă©s vĂ©gezzenek csendes-ĂŒlĂ©st (jingzuo 静材), teljesen elszigetelve magukat minden ĂŒgytƑl, beszĂŒntetve [a gondolkodĂĄst] Ă©s megpihenve. Ez egyĂ©rtelmƱen az az eset, amikor a tudatot hasznĂĄljĂĄk a tudat megĂĄllĂ­tĂĄsĂĄra, a tudatot hasznĂĄljĂĄk a tudat pihentetĂ©sĂ©re, Ă©s a tudatot hasznĂĄljĂĄk a tudat alkalmazĂĄsĂĄra. Így gyakorolva hogyan is ne esnĂ©nek a [zsĂĄkutcĂĄs] dhjĂĄna Ă©s a megsemmisĂŒlĂ©s birodalmĂĄba, akĂĄr a nem-buddhistĂĄk Ă©s a hĂ­najĂĄnistĂĄk?”

    — DĂ huĂŹ yǔlĂč (ć€§æ…§èȘžéŒ„), T47.923b9-12

TĂĄmadĂĄsai sorĂĄn DĂ huĂŹ ritkĂĄn fejtette ki pontosan, mi is a baj a csendes megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs csannal, vagy miĂ©rt „értettĂ©k fĂ©lre” annak követƑi a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄst. Elfogult Ă©s ĂĄltalĂĄnosĂ­tĂł kirohanĂĄsainak nagyon is nyomĂłs oka volt. ValĂłjĂĄban a CĂĄodĂČng-fĂ©le csendes megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs rendszere alig kĂŒlönbözött a hagyomĂĄnyos meditĂĄciĂłtĂłl, amelyet a CĂĄodĂČng mesterek – kĂŒlönösen HĂłngzhĂŹ ZhĂšngjuĂ© (漏æ™șæ­ŁèŠș) Ă©s QÄ«ngliǎo ZƍngjuĂ© (æž…äș†ćź—珏) – kivĂĄlĂłan tanĂ­tottak. A lĂ©nyeg az, hogy DĂ huĂŹt nem a meditĂĄciĂłs technikĂĄk közötti kĂŒlönbsĂ©g foglalkoztatta: az Ƒ rendszere Ă©s a CĂĄodĂČngĂ© között nem volt jelentƑs eltĂ©rĂ©s.

DĂ huĂŹ azĂ©rt tĂĄmadta a CĂĄodĂČngot, mert az a literĂĄtusok (az Ă­rĂĄstudĂł elit) körĂ©ben hirdette a csendes megvilĂĄgosodĂĄst. Amikor rĂĄjött, hogy az elit tĂșl sok tagja tanul CĂĄodĂČng mestereknĂ©l, aggodalma pĂĄnikszintet Ă©rt. Így tehĂĄt – ahogy lĂĄtni fogjuk – amilyen ShĂ©nhuĂŹ volt az Északi Iskola szĂĄmĂĄra, olyan lett DĂ huĂŹ a CĂĄodĂČngnak! Fontos megjegyezni, hogy tĂĄmadĂĄsaiban DĂ huĂŹ a csendes meditĂĄciĂł elleni ĂłvintĂ©zkedĂ©seit következetesen sajĂĄt gƍng’àn (koan) mĂłdszerĂ©nek nĂ©pszerƱsĂ­tĂ©sĂ©vel egyĂŒtt tĂĄlalta.

BĂĄr DĂ huĂŹ gƍng’àn-meditĂĄciĂłjĂĄt eredetileg szerzeteseknek szĂĄnta, ravasz mĂłdon Ă©s szabadon kezdte el felĂ­rni azt receptkĂ©nt a vilĂĄgi literĂĄtusok szĂĄmĂĄra is. Machiavellisztikus ravaszsĂĄga bevĂĄlt, mivel a gƍng’àn-meditĂĄciĂłt egyszerƱbb volt vĂ©gezni, Ă©s könnyebben illeszkedett a literĂĄtusok elfoglalt Ă©letmĂłdjĂĄba. DĂ huĂŹ tĂĄmadĂĄsai rĂ©vĂ©n a csendes megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs mĂłdszere annyira hiteltelennĂ© vĂĄlt, hogy „többĂ© soha nem hasznĂĄltĂĄk pozitĂ­v Ă©rtelemben”. Itt ismĂ©t egy kivĂĄlĂł pĂ©ldĂĄt lĂĄthatunk arra, hogyan tette magĂ©vĂĄ hƱsĂ©gesen a csodĂĄlĂł vilĂĄgi közössĂ©g egy nagy mester tĂ©ves nĂ©zetĂ©t – pontosan Ășgy, ahogy arra az (Ahitāya) Thera-szĂștra (A 5.88) is figyelmeztet.

A lĂĄmpĂĄs ĂĄtadĂĄsĂĄnak feljegyzĂ©se a Jingde-korszakbĂłl (JǐngdĂ© ChuĂĄndēng LĂč æ™ŻćŸ·ć‚łç‡ˆéŒ„) Ă©s a A BuddhĂĄk Ă©s a pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄk teljes krĂłnikĂĄja (FĂłzǔ TǒngjĂŹ 䜛焖由玀)

A szövegek kritikai vizsgĂĄlata sorĂĄn a belsƑ bizonyĂ­tĂ©kok meglĂ©te vagy hiĂĄnya – kĂŒlönösen több összefĂŒggƑ mƱ esetĂ©ben – segĂ­thet a tĂ©nyek megĂĄllapĂ­tĂĄsĂĄban. A lĂĄmpĂĄs ĂĄtadĂĄsĂĄnak feljegyzĂ©se a Jingde-korszakbĂłl (æ™ŻćŸ·ć‚łç‡ˆéŒ„) egy rendkĂ­vĂŒl befolyĂĄsos ĂĄtadĂĄsi dokumentum, amely a Fǎyǎn vonalat hirdette. ÖsszeĂĄllĂ­tĂłja egy WĂșyuĂš-kori szerzetes, a koreai szĂĄrmazĂĄsĂș DĂ oyuĂĄn (道慃) volt. Érdekes mĂłdon a mƱ hangneme következetlen a csan Ă©s a szĂștrĂĄk / feljegyzĂ©sek közötti harmĂłniĂĄval szemben, amelyrƑl YĂĄnshĂČu Ă©s ZĂ nnĂ­ng Ă­rĂĄsai tanĂșskodnak. Noha ez egy WĂșyuĂš-kori munka volt, erƑsen szektĂĄs jellegƱ: az ĂĄtadĂĄsi verseket Ă©s a „talĂĄlkozĂĄs-dialĂłgusokat” (æ©Ÿç·Łć•ç­” – jÄ«yuĂĄn wĂšndĂĄ) hangsĂșlyozta. Ez a stĂ­lus szöges ellentĂ©tben ĂĄllt a hagyomĂĄnyos buddhizmussal Ă©s a „csan Ă©s szentiratok harmĂłniĂĄjĂĄnak” elvĂ©vel. ValĂłjĂĄban ez az erƑs felekezeti hangvĂ©tel vĂĄlt a mintĂĄjĂĄvĂĄ a Szung-kori csanban elterjedt Ășj tĂ­pusĂș buddhista Ă©letrajzĂ­rĂĄsnak, amely a vonalvezetĂ©st (leszĂĄrmazĂĄst) tette a felekezeti identitĂĄs alapjĂĄvĂĄ.

MĂ©g Ă©rdekesebb – amint arra Albert Welter rĂĄmutat –, hogy a mƱhöz kĂ©t elƑszĂł is kĂ©szĂŒlt: egy YĂĄngyĂŹ Ă©s egy DĂ oyuĂĄn tollĂĄbĂłl, de csak az egyik maradt a szöveg mellett. YĂĄngyĂŹ (æ„Šć„„, 974–1020), a neves Szung-kori tisztviselƑ elƑszava szerepel a standard kiadĂĄsban; Ƒ volt az, aki ĂĄtszerkesztette a szöveget Ă©s a ma ismert cĂ­met adta neki. Az eredeti összeĂĄllĂ­tĂł, DĂ oyuĂĄn elƑszava azonban csak kĂŒlön, mĂĄs forrĂĄsokban maradt fenn.

YĂĄngyĂŹ elƑszavĂĄbĂłl kiderĂŒl, hogy DĂ oyuĂĄn eredeti ĂĄtadĂĄsi feljegyzĂ©sĂ©t vezetƑ Szung-kori tisztviselƑk szerkesztettĂ©k ĂĄt, maga YĂĄngyĂŹ vezetĂ©sĂ©vel. Mivel DĂ oyuĂĄn eredeti összeĂĄllĂ­tĂĄsa nem maradt fenn, nehĂ©z megĂ­tĂ©lni, pontosan mennyiben vĂĄltoztattĂĄk meg a szöveget. DĂ oyuĂĄn eredeti cĂ­me, a FĂłzǔ TǒngjĂŹ (䜛焖由玀 – „A BuddhĂĄk Ă©s pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄk teljes krĂłnikĂĄja”) mĂ©g harmĂłniĂĄt sugallt a csan Ă©s a buddhista tradĂ­ciĂł között, de YĂĄngyĂŹ cenzĂșrĂĄzott Ă©s ĂĄtdolgozott vĂĄltozata, a JǐngdĂ© ChuĂĄndēng LĂč mĂĄr mĂĄst mutatott. Erre az eltĂ©rĂ©sre egyĂ©rtelmƱen utalnak a felek elƑszavai. DĂ oyuĂĄn csan-gyakorlata mĂ©g összhangban volt a WĂșyuĂš-csannal, kĂŒlönösen a YĂĄnshĂČu ĂĄltal hirdetett „szĂĄmtalan gyakorlat alkalmazĂĄsa a gyakorlĂłk kĂŒlönbözƑsĂ©ge szerint” elvvel. YĂĄngyĂŹ ezzel szemben a csant mint „szentiratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlönleges gyakorlatot” mutatta be, ami a csan exkluzivitĂĄsĂĄt hirdette Ă©s alĂĄĂĄsta a pluralizmust.

YĂĄngyĂŹ reinterpretĂĄciĂłja rĂĄvilĂĄgĂ­t a csan Szung-kori tĂĄrsadalomban betöltött kiemelkedƑ szerepĂ©re, valamint arra, hogy a literĂĄtusok (Ă­rĂĄstudĂł elit) mekkora szerepet jĂĄtszottak a csan ideolĂłgiĂĄjĂĄnak meghatĂĄrozĂĄsĂĄban. ValĂłjĂĄban YĂĄngyĂŹ mindenki mĂĄsnĂĄl jobban felelƑs azĂ©rt, hogy a csant a hivatalos Szung-kori körökben „szentiratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄskĂ©nt” hatĂĄroztĂĄk meg.

A lĂĄmpĂĄs kiterjesztett ĂĄtadĂĄsa a Tiansheng-korszakbĂłl (TiānshĂšng Guǎngdēng LĂč ć€©è–ć»Łç‡ˆéŒ„) Ă©s a LĂ­njĂŹ-hatalom

Amikor szentiratokat lĂĄtunk – kĂŒlönösen, ha azok igĂ©nyesen nyomtatott kötetekben jelennek meg –, az a benyomĂĄsunk tĂĄmadhat, hogy keletkezĂ©sĂŒk is ugyanilyen rendezett mĂłdon törtĂ©nt. ValĂłjĂĄban a vallĂĄsi szövegeknek – mĂ©g a korai buddhista kĂĄnonnak is – bonyolult törtĂ©netĂŒk van: kezdetben „nyitott” kĂĄnonkĂ©nt lĂ©teznek, majd a vallĂĄstörtĂ©net egy pontjĂĄn lezĂĄrjĂĄk Ƒket. HasonlĂłkĂ©ppen, amikor Bodhidharma hĂ­res nĂ©gysorosĂĄrĂłl olvasunk, azt hihetjĂŒk, hogy egy ƑsrĂ©gi mondĂĄsrĂłl van szĂł. A valĂłsĂĄg azonban – Ă©s kĂŒlönösen az ilyen örökölt bölcsessĂ©gek törtĂ©nete – ennĂ©l sokkal összetettebb.

A kĂ­nai csĂĄszĂĄri buddhizmus intĂ©zmĂ©nytörtĂ©nete szorosan összefonĂłdott az udvarral. Erre egyĂ©rtelmƱ bizonyĂ­tĂ©kot talĂĄlunk a Szung-korban, amikor a LĂ­njĂŹ (è‡šæżŸ) vonal a TiānshĂšng Guǎngdēng LĂč (ć€©è–ć»Łç‡ˆéŒ„ – „A lĂĄmpĂĄs kiterjesztett ĂĄtadĂĄsa a Tiansheng-korszakbĂłl”) kiadĂĄsĂĄval erƑsĂ­tette meg dominanciĂĄjĂĄt. A mƱvet Lǐ ZĆ«nxĂč (æŽé”ć‹—, 988–1038) ĂĄllĂ­totta össze, aki TĂ izƍng csĂĄszĂĄr veje, Zhēnzƍng csĂĄszĂĄr sĂłgora Ă©s RĂ©nzƍng csĂĄszĂĄr idƑsebb rokona volt. A szöveg olyannyira hivatalosnak szĂĄmĂ­tott, hogy viselte az uralkodĂĄsi korszak cĂ­mĂ©t (TiānshĂšng), Ă©s maga a csĂĄszĂĄr Ă­rt hozzĂĄ elƑszĂłt.

BefejezĂ©se utĂĄn a Guǎngdēng LĂč-t – az elƑtte megjelent ChuĂĄndēng LĂč pĂ©ldĂĄjĂĄt követve – felvettĂ©k a buddhista kĂĄnonba, amivel a LĂ­njĂŹ-vonal hĂ­rneve tovĂĄbb emelkedett. Ebben a mƱben rögzĂ­tettĂ©k elƑször teljes egĂ©szĂ©ben LĂ­njĂŹ tanĂ­tĂĄsait. Ezzel Ƒ vĂĄlt a hivatalos ĂĄtadĂĄsi lĂĄncszemmĂ© Mǎzǔ (677–744), BǎizhĂ ng (749–814) Ă©s HuĂĄngbĂČ (megh. 850) utĂĄn. Amint azt Albert Welter megjegyezte, nem HuĂĄngbĂČ volt az egyetlen vagy akĂĄr a legjobb jelölt LĂ­njĂŹ dharma-mesterĂ©nek, Ă©s a LĂ­njĂŹ-hez vezetƑ Ășt sem volt az egyetlen lehetsĂ©ges vĂĄlasztĂĄs a csan ortodoxia szĂĄmĂĄra. A lĂ©nyeg itt az, hogy a pĂĄtriĂĄrkai stĂĄtusz presztĂ­zskĂ©rdĂ©s volt, nem pedig kizĂĄrĂłlag spirituĂĄlis minƑsĂ©g.

A TiānshĂšng Guǎngdēng LĂč szerint a csan „szentiratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄskĂ©nt” valĂł Ă©rtelmezĂ©se nem Bodhidharma vagy LĂ­njĂŹ innovĂĄciĂłja volt, ahogyan azt a kĂ©sƑbbi hagyomĂĄny sugallta. A kifejezĂ©s legelsƑ emlĂ­tĂ©se a mƱben YĂšxiĂ n GuĂŹshēng (10. sz. vĂ©ge – 11. sz. eleje) csan mester Ă©letrajzĂĄban szerepel, aki a suzhou-i Bǎo‘ān-hegy GuǎngjiĂ o templomĂĄban Ă©lt, Ă©s a pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄk lila köntösĂ©nek (zǐyÄ« çŽ«èĄŁ) birtokosa volt. Úgy jellemeztĂ©k Ƒt, mint aki „hideg Ă©s szigorĂș, kemĂ©ny Ă©s takarĂ©kos, s akit mĂ©g a foltozott ruhĂĄjĂș szerzetesek is tiszteltek Ă©s fĂ©ltek”. GuĂŹshēng egy olyan beszĂ©dĂ©ben hasznĂĄlta ezt a kifejezĂ©st, amelyben azt prĂłbĂĄlta elmagyarĂĄzni, mi volt az Ă©rtelme annak, hogy Bodhidharma nyugatrĂłl [IndiĂĄbĂłl] Ă©rkezett...

    é”çŁšè„żäŸ†
    æł•ć‚łæ±ćœŸ
    盎指äșș濃
    芋性成䜛
    æłä»„è„żäŸ†çš„æ„
    æ•™ć€–ćˆ„ć‚ł

    Amikor Bodhidharma nyugatról megérkezett,
    s åtadta a Dharmåt a keleti földeken (Kínåban),
    közvetlenĂŒl az emberi tudatra mutatott,
    hogy felismerve termĂ©szetĂŒnket, elĂ©rjĂŒk a buddhasĂĄgot...
    Mi volt håt nyugatról jövetelének értelme?
    Egy, a tanĂ­tĂĄsokon (iratokon) kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄs.

    — TX78.1553.496a23-b2

Ugyanez az összefĂŒggĂ©s Bodhidharma ĂŒzenete Ă©s a csan „szentiratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄskĂ©nt” valĂł Ă©rtelmezĂ©se között megtalĂĄlhatĂł a 11. szĂĄzad elejĂ©n Ă©lt ShĂ­shuāng (vagy NĂĄnyĂŒĂĄn) ChǔyuĂĄn (石霜/捗æș æ„šćœ“, 987–1040) csan mester Ă©letrajzĂĄban is, aki a YuĂĄnzhƍu-beli NĂĄnyĂŒĂĄn-hegyen tevĂ©kenykedett. ChǔyuĂĄn Ă©rtelmezĂ©se sorsdöntƑ jelentƑsĂ©ggel bĂ­rt a Szung-kori csan jövƑje szempontjĂĄbĂłl, mivel Ƒ volt a tanĂ­tĂłmestere YĂĄngqĂ­ FānghuĂŹ-nak (愊ćȐæ–č會, 992–1049) Ă©s HuĂĄnglĂłng HuĂŹnĂĄn-nak (é»ƒéŸæ…§ć—, 1002–1069). Ɛk ketten ĂĄlltak annak a kĂ©t ĂĄgnak (a YĂĄngqĂ­ Ă©s a HuĂĄnglĂłng ĂĄgnak) az Ă©lĂ©n, amelyek a Szung-kortĂłl kezdve dominĂĄltĂĄk a LĂ­njĂŹ (è‡šæżŸ) vonalat.

THE BUDDHA‘S FLOWER AND MAHĀ KĀŚYAPA‘S SMILE

    ćŸæœ‰æ­Łæł•çœŒè—ïŒŒæ¶…æ§ƒćŠ™ćżƒïŒŒćŻŠç›žç„Ąç›žïŒŒćŸźćŠ™æł•é–€ïŒŒäžç«‹æ–‡ć­—ïŒŒæ•™ć€–ćˆ„ć‚łïŒŒä»˜ć›‘æ‘©èš¶èżŠè‘‰ă€‚

    A Magasztos Ă­gy szĂłlt: »Birtoklom az Igaz Dharma-szemet, a NirvĂĄna CsodĂĄlatos TudatĂĄt, a FormĂĄtlan Igaz FormĂĄjĂĄt, a Finom Dharma-kaput, amely nem szavakon vagy Ă­rĂĄsjeleken nyugszik, hanem a szentiratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄs. Ezt rĂĄbĂ­zom MahĂĄkĂĄsjapĂĄra.«

E szavakkal törtĂ©nt meg az elsƑ ĂĄtadĂĄs kĂ©t buddha között. Nem volt ez mĂĄs, mint hogy a Buddha felmutatott egy virĂĄgot az egybegyƱlt szerzeteseknek, Ă©s egyikĂŒk, MahĂĄkĂĄsjapa (MĂłhējiāshĂš æ‘©èš¶èżŠè‘‰), mosollyal vĂĄlaszolt. Ez volt az elismerĂ©se annak, hogy a mester Ă©s a tanĂ­tvĂĄny tudata egy Ă©s ugyanaz. MunkĂĄm jelentƑs rĂ©szĂ©t e vonalvezetĂ©s nagy mestereinek tanĂ­tĂĄsai (szĂștrĂĄk, dokumentumok) megĂ©rtĂ©sĂ©vel Ă©s fordĂ­tĂĄsĂĄval töltöm; ez nehĂ©z feladat, amely nagy Ă©bersĂ©get Ă©s tĂŒrelmet igĂ©nyel. Ezek az iratok azonban nem csupĂĄn azĂ©rt vannak, hogy a tanĂ­tvĂĄny feljegyezze elƑdeit, hanem azĂ©rt is, hogy mĂ©lyen ĂĄtĂ©lje a kapcsolatot mindazokkal, akik elƑttĂŒnk jĂĄrtak, hogy elhozzĂĄk nekĂŒnk a Buddha ÚtjĂĄt (fǎ 灋/æł•). AlĂĄzatra kötelezƑ Ă©s mĂ©lyen kielĂ©gĂ­tƑ Ă©rzĂ©s ilyen illusztris tĂĄrsasĂĄghoz tartozni. De ha a Buddha azt mondja, hogy az Igaz Dharma-szem (zhĂšngfǎyǎn æ­Łæł•çœŒ) a szentiratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄs (jiĂ owĂ i biĂ©tuĂĄn æ•™ć€–ćˆ„ć‚ł), akkor valĂłjĂĄban mi adĂłdik ĂĄt? Annak megĂ©rtĂ©se, hogy »minden lĂ©ny rendelkezik a Buddha-termĂ©szettel« (fĂłxĂŹng 䜛性), segĂ­t lĂĄtnom, hogy minden, amit tudnunk kell, mĂĄr bennĂŒnk van – nincs semmi, amit bĂĄrki mĂĄs adhatna nekĂŒnk. ValĂłdi termĂ©szetĂŒnket mĂ©g elfedheti a vĂĄgy, az ellenszenv vagy a tĂ©velygĂ©s. Ez a tanĂ­tĂł feladata: segĂ­teni a tanĂ­tvĂĄnyoknak megszabadulni ezektƑl a »leplektƑl«. Amikor ez mĂ©lyen beteljesedik, a tanĂ­tvĂĄny, a tanĂ­tĂł Ă©s az összes Ƒs tudata (xÄ«n 濃) azonossĂĄ vĂĄlik. S ez a tudat »adĂłdik ĂĄt« meleg kĂ©zrƑl meleg kĂ©zre – szĂ­vtƑl szĂ­vig (yǐxÄ«n Ă­nxÄ«n ä»„ćżƒć°ćżƒ).

A TiānshĂšng guǎngdēng lĂč (ć€©è–ć»Łç‡ˆéŒ„) mĂ©g nem kötötte közvetlenĂŒl BodhidharmĂĄhoz (PĂștĂ­dĂĄmĂł è©æé”çŁš) a „szentiratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄs” (jiĂ owĂ i biĂ©tuĂĄn æ•™ć€–ćˆ„ć‚ł) kifejezĂ©st, de tartalmaz egy olyan törtĂ©netet, amely ĂșjszerƱnek szĂĄmĂ­t. Eszerint a „kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄst” maga SĂĄkjamuni (ShĂŹjiāmĂłunĂ­ é‡‹èżŠç‰Ÿć°Œ) hajtotta vĂ©gre legelƑször KĂĄsjapa (JiāshĂš èżŠè‘‰) irĂĄnyĂĄba: a törtĂ©net szerint SĂĄkjamuni egyszer felmutatott egy virĂĄgot, amire KĂĄsjapa egy mosollyal vĂĄlaszolt a gyĂŒlekezet elƑtt. Ez a csan (chĂĄn çŠȘ) hagyomĂĄny egyik leghĂ­resebb törtĂ©nete, amely az Ă­rott szavaktĂłl fĂŒggetlen, nĂ©ma ĂĄtadĂĄs kulcsfontossĂĄgĂș esemĂ©nyĂ©t hivatott szemlĂ©ltetni. SĂĄkjamuni dharma-ĂĄtadĂĄsĂĄt (fǎchuĂĄn æł•ć‚ł) KĂĄsjapa felĂ© mĂĄr a JǐngdĂ© zhuĂ ndēng lĂč (æ™ŻćŸ·ć‚łç‡ˆéŒ„) is feljegyezte, mint a „tiszta Dharma-szem (zhĂšngfǎyǎn æ­Łæł•çœŒ), a nirvĂĄna csodĂĄlatos tudatĂĄnak (niĂšpĂĄn miĂ oxÄ«n æ¶…æ§ƒćŠ™ćżƒ)” ĂĄtadĂĄsĂĄt, ĂĄm ott mĂ©g nem esik szĂł a virĂĄg felmutatĂĄsĂĄnak Ă©s KĂĄsjapa mosolyĂĄnak hĂ­res epizĂłdjĂĄrĂłl. A virĂĄg-törtĂ©net a csan ĂĄtadĂĄsi feljegyzĂ©sek közĂŒl legelƑször a TiānshĂšng guǎngdēng lĂč-ban jelenik meg. ÉrthetƑ mĂłdon ez a mƱ vĂĄlt a Szung-kori (SĂČng 漋) csan identitĂĄs egyik kulcsszövegĂ©vĂ©, amely a „szentiratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄs” fogalmĂĄra alapozta az iskola önmeghatĂĄrozĂĄsĂĄt.

    Ebben az apokrif törtĂ©netben SĂĄkjamuni (ShĂŹjiāmĂłunĂ­ é‡‹èżŠç‰Ÿć°Œ), elismerve KĂĄsjapa (JiāshĂš èżŠè‘‰) mosolyĂĄt, amellyel a gyĂŒlekezet elƑtt felmutatott virĂĄgra vĂĄlaszolt, Ă­gy nyilatkozik: „Birtoklom az igaz Dharma-szem kincstĂĄrĂĄt (zhĂšngfǎyǎn zĂ ng æ­Łæł•çœŒè—), a nirvĂĄna csodĂĄlatos tudatĂĄt (niĂšpĂĄn miĂ oxÄ«n æ¶…æ§ƒćŠ™ćżƒ). Ezt most rĂĄbĂ­zom MahĂĄ KĂĄsjapĂĄra.” Az igaz Dharma-szem kincstĂĄra, mint SĂĄkjamuni tanĂ­tĂĄsĂĄnak lĂ©nyege, ekkor mĂ©g semmilyen mĂłdon nem kapcsolĂłdott a „szentiratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄs” (jiĂ owĂ i biĂ©tuĂĄn æ•™ć€–ćˆ„ć‚ł) kifejezĂ©shez, de hamarosan ez is megtörtĂ©nt. ValĂłjĂĄban a Szung-korra (SĂČng 漋) az „igaz Dharma-szem kincstĂĄra” kifejezĂ©s a csan ideolĂłgia jelszavĂĄvĂĄ vĂĄlt, de mĂĄr nem a TripitakĂĄra (a hagyomĂĄnyos szentiratok hĂĄrom gyƱjtemĂ©nyĂ©re) utalt. InkĂĄbb egyfajta kĂŒlönleges „gyƱjtemĂ©nyt” (pitaka; zĂ ng 藏) jelölt, amely egyĂĄltalĂĄn nem tartalmazott Ă­rott szövegeket, hanem egyszerƱen a dharma „szemĂ©t” vagy formĂĄtlan lĂ©nyegĂ©t – magĂĄt a Buddha-tudatot vagy a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄst – jelentette. KĂ©sƑbb a kifejezĂ©st a csan pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄk mondĂĄsaira is alkalmaztĂĄk, kĂŒlönösen akkor, ha azokat összegyƱjtöttĂ©k Ă©s gƍng’àn (koan) formĂĄjĂĄban hasznĂĄltĂĄk.

    Foulk 1999: 230 & n19)

Az, hogy ugyanabban az ĂĄtadĂĄsi feljegyzĂ©sben, a TiānshĂšng guǎngdēng lĂč-ban (ć€©è–ć»Łç‡ˆéŒ„) egyszerre jelenik meg a csan buddhista szentiratoktĂłl fĂŒggetlen hagyomĂĄnykĂ©nt valĂł Ă©rtelmezĂ©se, valamint az ezen fĂŒggetlen hagyomĂĄny kezdetĂ©rƑl szĂłlĂł törtĂ©net, jĂłl mutatja, milyen aktĂ­van fĂĄradoztak a csan nĂ©pszerƱsĂ­tƑi sajĂĄt arculatuk rekonstruĂĄlĂĄsĂĄn a korai Szung-korban (SĂČng 漋). A törtĂ©netnek az az elsƑ vĂĄltozata, amely explicittĂ© tette azt, amit a TiānshĂšng guǎngdēng lĂč mĂ©g csak burkoltan sugallt, a DĂ fĂĄn tiānwĂĄng wĂšn fĂłjuĂ©yĂ­ jÄ«ng (ć€§æą”ć€©çŽ‹ć•äœ›æ±ș疑經 – „A szĂștra, amelyben MahĂĄbrahmĂĄ Ă©gi Ășr kĂ©rdezi a BuddhĂĄt kĂ©tsĂ©gei felƑl”) volt. E szĂștra vĂĄltozata szerint, miközben SĂĄkjamuni a gyĂŒlekezet elƑtt ĂŒlt a brahmintĂłl kapott lĂłtuszvirĂĄgot tartva, KĂĄsjapa (JiāshĂš èżŠè‘‰) egyetlen szĂł nĂ©lkĂŒl elmosolyodott. A Buddha ekkor Ă­gy szĂłlt:

    ćŸæœ‰æ­Łæł•çœŒè—ïŒŒæ¶…æ§ƒćŠ™ćżƒïŒŒćŻŠç›žç„Ąç›žïŒŒćŸźćŠ™æł•é–€ïŒŒäžç«‹æ–‡ć­—ïŒŒæ•™ć€–ćˆ„ć‚łïŒŒä»˜ć›‘æ‘©èš¶èżŠè‘‰ă€‚

    „Birtoklom az igaz Dharma-szem kincstĂĄrĂĄt (zhĂšngfǎyǎn zĂ ng æ­Łæł•çœŒè—), a nirvĂĄna csodĂĄlatos tudatĂĄt (niĂšpĂĄn miĂ oxÄ«n æ¶…æ§ƒćŠ™ćżƒ), az igaz forma formĂĄtlansĂĄgĂĄbĂłl szĂŒletett csodĂĄs Dharma-mĂłdszereket, melyek nem tĂĄmaszkodnak Ă­rott szavakra (bĂčlĂŹ wĂ©nzĂŹ äžç«‹æ–‡ć­—), hanem a szentiratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄst (jiĂ owĂ i biĂ©tuĂĄn æ•™ć€–ćˆ„ć‚ł) kĂ©pezik...”

    A szĂștra, amelyben MahĂĄbrahmĂĄ Ă©gi Ășr kĂ©rdezi a BuddhĂĄt kĂ©tsĂ©gei felƑl (DĂ fĂĄn tiānwĂĄng wĂšn fĂłjuĂ©yĂ­ jÄ«ng ć€§æą”ć€©çŽ‹ć•äœ›æ±ș疑經)

– majd ezek utĂĄn rĂĄbĂ­zta azt KĂĄsjapĂĄra. Ez a kinyilatkoztatĂĄs, mint lĂĄthatĂł, közvetlenĂŒl összekapcsolta a Buddha tanĂ­tĂĄsĂĄt („az igaz Dharma-szem kincstĂĄra...”) a csan „tanĂ­tĂĄson kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄskĂ©nt” meghatĂĄrozott identitĂĄsĂĄval. Ironikus mĂłdon egy szentiratot hasznĂĄltak fel a szentiratoktĂłl valĂł fĂŒggetlensĂ©g igazolĂĄsĂĄra! Nincs bizonyĂ­tĂ©k arra, hogy a DĂ fĂĄn tiānwĂĄng wĂšn fĂłjuĂ©yĂ­ jÄ«ng lĂ©tezett volna a Szung-kor elƑtt, Ă©s szĂ©les körben apokrifnek tekintik – nyilvĂĄnvalĂłan SĂĄkjamuni Ă©s KĂĄsjapa törtĂ©netĂ©t a vonalvezetĂ©s (lineage) legitimĂĄlĂĄsa cĂ©ljĂĄbĂłl talĂĄltĂĄk ki.

A csan (chĂĄn çŠȘ) Ășj arculatĂĄt, mint „szentiratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄst” (jiĂ owĂ i biĂ©tuĂĄn æ•™ć€–ćˆ„ć‚ł), egy sajĂĄtosan csan irodalmi forma, a gƍng’àn (ć…ŹæĄˆ, japĂĄnul: koan) – szĂł szerint „nyilvĂĄnos ĂŒgy” vagy kĂ©pletesen „esettanulmĂĄny” – formĂĄlta meg. A Szung-kor (SĂČng 漋) vĂ©gĂ©n összeĂĄllĂ­tott WĂșmĂ©nguān (無門關 – „A se kapun lĂ©vƑ kapu”, japĂĄnul: Mumonkan) az esettanulmĂĄnyai közĂ© sorolta SĂĄkjamuni (ShĂŹjiāmĂłunĂ­ é‡‹èżŠç‰Ÿć°Œ) Ă©s KĂĄsjapa (JiāshĂš èżŠè‘‰) interakciĂłjĂĄnak törtĂ©netĂ©t, az apokrif DĂ fĂĄn tiānwĂĄng wĂšn fĂłjuĂ©yĂ­ jÄ«ng-ben rögzĂ­tett vĂĄltozatot követve. AzĂĄltal, hogy ez a törtĂ©net bekerĂŒlt a WĂșmĂ©nguān-ba, Ășgymond feltettĂ©k a koronĂĄt a csanra mint „szentiratokon kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄsra”, Ă©s ez maradt az elfogadott hagyomĂĄny a mai napig.

CHÁN ERƐSZAK

A csan buddhizmus – legalĂĄbbis a szavak Ă©s a törtĂ©netek szintjĂ©n – rendkĂ­vĂŒl erƑszakos tud lenni. De honnan ered ez az intĂ©zmĂ©nyesĂ­tett erƑszak? És szĂł szerint kell-e Ă©rtelmezni? A csan törtĂ©nete szemlĂ©lhetƑ Ășgy is, mint a kĂ­nai buddhizmus fejlƑdĂ©se attĂłl a ponttĂłl kezdve, amikor mĂ©g a korai indiai tanĂ­tĂĄsok tĂŒkrözƑdĂ©se volt, egĂ©szen addig, amĂ­g teljesen kĂ­naivĂĄ nem vĂĄlt. A 8. szĂĄzad folyamĂĄn – leginkĂĄbb a gĂĄtlĂĄstalan dĂ©li szerzetes, ShĂ©nhuĂŹ (焞會) erƑfeszĂ­tĂ©seinek köszönhetƑen – a csan mĂĄr inkĂĄbb volt kĂ­nai, mint buddhista.

A Csan „intĂ©zmĂ©nyesĂ­tett erƑszakĂĄt”, ezek a pĂĄli kĂĄnonbĂłl szĂĄrmazĂł versek mutatjĂĄk, hogy a provokatĂ­v, sokkolĂł nyelvhasznĂĄlat nem a Csan talĂĄlmĂĄnya. MĂĄr az indiai buddhizmus alapmƱvei is hasznĂĄltak radikĂĄlis metaforĂĄkat (mint az apa Ă©s anya megölĂ©se), hogy Ă©rzĂ©keltessĂ©k a belsƑ munka könyörtelensĂ©gĂ©t Ă©s a ragaszkodĂĄs teljes felszĂĄmolĂĄsĂĄnak igĂ©nyĂ©t. A Csan mesterek (mint ShĂ©nhuĂŹ vagy LĂ­njĂŹ) csupĂĄn a szavak szintjĂ©rƑl a tettek szintjĂ©re emeltĂ©k ezt a provokĂĄciĂłt, amikor kiĂĄltĂĄsokkal vagy vĂĄratlan gesztusokkal „gyilkoltĂĄk meg” a tanĂ­tvĂĄnyaikban lakozĂł hamis Ă©nkĂ©pet.

És valĂłban, provokatĂ­v ĂĄthallĂĄsokra talĂĄlhatunk pĂ©ldĂĄkat mĂ©g olyan kis gyƱjtemĂ©nyekben is, mint a Dhammapada vagy az Apadāna, pĂ©ldĂĄul:

    „Irtstátok ki az erdƑt, de ne a fát!
    Az erdƑbƑl tĂĄmad a fĂ©lelem.
    Ha kivĂĄgtĂĄtok az erdƑt Ă©s az aljnövĂ©nyzetet is,
    Ó, bhikkhuk, erdƑtƑl mentesek lesztek!”

    Az erdƑ kiirtása (Dh 283)

    Az „erdƑ” (vana) itt a vĂĄgyak Ă©s szenvedĂ©lyek sƱrƱjĂ©t jelkĂ©pezi. A „fa” (rukkha) a tudat tiszta lĂ©nyegĂ©re utal. A buddhista Ășt cĂ©lja nem az Ă©let kioltĂĄsa, hanem a vĂĄgyak sƱrƱ bozĂłtjĂĄnak felszĂĄmolĂĄsa, amelyben a fĂ©lelem gyökerezik.

    „MiutĂĄn megölte anyjĂĄt Ă©s apjĂĄt,
    és két kirålyt, s lemészårolt
    egy birodalmat a kormĂĄnyzĂłjĂĄval egyĂŒtt –
    a brĂĄhmana szenvedĂ©s nĂ©lkĂŒl vĂĄndorol.”

    A szimbolikus „gyilkosság” (Dh 294)

    Ez az egyik legmeglepƑbb szakasz a buddhista kĂĄnonban, ahol a „erƑszak” nyelve tisztĂĄn metaforikus. Anya: A sĂłvĂĄrgĂĄs (tanhā). Apa: Az Ă©nkĂ©p vagy gƑg (asmimāna). KĂ©t kirĂĄly: Az öröklĂ©t-hit Ă©s a megsemmisĂŒlĂ©s-hit (szĂ©lsƑsĂ©ges nĂ©zetek). Birodalom Ă©s kormĂĄnyzĂł: Az Ă©rzĂ©kszervek Ă©s a hozzĂĄjuk kapcsolĂłdĂł tudatossĂĄg. A vers azt tanĂ­tja, hogy a teljes megszabadulĂĄshoz a legmĂ©lyebb belsƑ ragaszkodĂĄsokat is „el kell pusztĂ­tani”.

    „Engedd el a mĂșltat (az elĂŒlsƑt). Engedd el a jövƑt (a hĂĄtulsĂłt).
    Engedd el a jelent (a közĂ©psƑt). Átkelve a tĂșlsĂł partra,
    mindenrƑl lemondott tudattal,
    ne ess vissza többĂ© a szĂŒletĂ©s Ă©s hanyatlĂĄs körforgĂĄsĂĄba.”

    Az elengedés (Dh 348)

    Az idƑhöz valĂł ragaszkodĂĄs bĂ©klyĂł. A „tĂșlsĂł part” a NirvĂĄna, ahol a tudat mĂĄr nem kapaszkodik az idƑbeli folytonossĂĄgba.

    „Az ember, ki vágytalan, ki ismeri a meg-nem-alkotottat,
    ki elvågta a kötelékeket,
    ki felszĂĄmolta az alkalmakat (a viszĂĄlyra Ă©s ĂșjraszĂŒletĂ©sre),
    s ki azt eszi, mit mások elvetettek –
    Ƒ valĂłban a legmagasabb rendƱ ember.”

    A legmagasabb rendƱ ember (Dh 97); DhA 7.8/2:187

    Ez a vers dicsƑíti az Arhatot (a megvilĂĄgosodottat). A „meg-nem-alkotott” (asankhata) a NirvĂĄna jelzƑje, mivel az nem az ok-okozati összefĂŒggĂ©sek (karma) szĂŒlemĂ©nye.

A kĂ­nai nyelv termĂ©szete – amely piktografikus, egyszĂłtagĂș Ă©s konkrĂ©t – kevĂ©sbĂ© hajlamos az absztrakciĂłra. A kĂ­nai kĂ©palkotĂĄs rendszerint mĂ©rhetƑ dolgokra vagy a termĂ©szetre tĂĄmaszkodik (utĂłbbi hasonlatos a Theragāthā Ă©s TherÄ«gāthā verseihez). A kĂ­nai nyelv absztrakt Ă©s fogalmi kifejezĂ©sei, kĂŒlönösen a vallĂĄsi szaknyelvben, vĂ©gsƑ soron az indiai buddhista szövegekbƑl szĂĄrmaznak; ilyen pĂ©ldĂĄul a tathāgatagarbha (a buddhasĂĄg mĂ©he; rĂșlĂĄngĂ ng ćŠ‚äŸ†è—), a tathatā (olyansĂĄg; zhēnrĂș 真橂), a dharmadhātu (a valĂłsĂĄg birodalma; fǎjiĂš æł•ç•Œ), a buddhatva (Buddha-termĂ©szet; fĂłxĂŹng 䜛性) Ă©s a nirvĂĄna (niĂšpĂĄn 涅槃).

A buddhista filozĂłfiai diskurzus kĂ­nai mĂłdja rendszerint lakonikus Ă©s kĂ©zzelfoghatĂł (tömör Ă©s az Ă©rzĂ©kszervekre hatĂł), Ă©s gyakran szĂ©lsƑsĂ©gesen az. VegyĂŒk pĂ©ldĂĄul a WĂșmĂ©nguān 21. esetĂ©t, JĂșnmĂ©n „SzĂĄraz szĂ©klet-botjĂĄt” (ÉrshĂ­yÄ« yĂșnmĂ©n shǐjuĂ© äșŒćäž€ é›Čé–€ć±Žæ©›):

    é›Čé–€ă€ć› ćƒ§ć•ă€ćŠ‚äœ•æ˜Żäœ›ă€‚
    門äș‘、äčŸć±Žæ©›

    Egy szerzetes megkĂ©rdezte JĂșnmĂ©nt: „Mi a Buddha?” JĂșnmĂ©n Ă­gy felelt: „Egy szĂĄraz szĂ©klet-bot!” (ShǐjuĂ© ć±Žæ©›)

    WĂșmĂ©nguān #21: T 48.295c5)

E koan szerzƑje bizonyosan nem a korai indiai szövegekbƑl merĂ­tette az ihletet: ott nem talĂĄlunk ilyen kĂ©pvilĂĄgot. Ez a filozĂłfiai földközelisĂ©g tƑsgyökeres kĂ­nai sajĂĄtossĂĄg, amelyet olyan pĂ©ldĂĄk legitimĂĄlnak, mint a Dao (Út) hĂ­res leĂ­rĂĄsa a Zhuāngzǐ (Zhuang mester) könyvben, a »TudĂĄs Ă©szakon barangol« (ZhÄ«běiyĂłu çŸ„ćŒ—éŠ) cĂ­mƱ fejezetben:”

    æ±éƒ­ć­ć•æ–ŒèŽŠć­æ›°ïŒš "æ‰€èŹ‚é“ïŒŒæƒĄäčŽćœš."
    èŽŠć­æ›°ïŒš"ç„Ąæ‰€äžćœš."
    æ±éƒ­ć­æ›°ïŒš" æœŸè€ŒćŸŒćŻ."
    èŽŠć­æ›°ïŒš"ćœšèž»èŸ»."
    曰"äœ•ć…¶äž‹é‚Ș?"
    曰"朹繊繗."
    曰"äœ•ć…¶æ„ˆäž‹é‚Ș?"
    曰"朹瓩甓."
    曰"äœ•ć…¶æ„ˆç”šé‚Ș?"
    曰"ćœšć±Žæșș?"
    æ±éƒ­ć­äžæ‡‰ă€‚

    Dƍngguƍzi megkĂ©rdezte Zhuāngzǐt: – Amit DaĂłnak (Útnak) neveznek, hol talĂĄlhatĂł az valĂłjĂĄban?
    Zhuāngzǐ így felelt: – Nincs olyan hely, ahol ne lenne jelen.
    Dƍngguƍzi Ă­gy szĂłlt: – KĂ©rlek, fogalmazz konkrĂ©tabban, hogy megĂ©rtsem!
    Zhuāngzǐ felelt: – Ott van a lĂłtetƱben Ă©s a hangyĂĄban (lĂłuyǐ 螻蟻).
    Dƍngguƍzi kĂ©rdezte: – Hogy lehetne ilyen alacsonyrendƱ dolgokban?
    Zhuāngzǐ felelt: – Ott van a kölesben Ă©s a gyomban (tĂ­bĂ i 繊繗).
    Dƍngguƍzi kĂ©rdezte: – Hogy lehetne mĂ©g ennĂ©l is alĂĄbb?
    Zhuāngzǐ felelt: – Ott van a cserĂ©pben Ă©s a tĂ©glĂĄban (wǎpĂŹ 瓩甓).
    Dƍngguƍzi kĂ©rdezte: – Hogy mehetne el ilyen messzire a hitvĂĄnysĂĄgba?
    Zhuāngzǐ felelt: – Ott van a szĂ©kletben Ă©s a vizeletben (shǐnĂŹ 汎æșș).
    Dƍngguƍzi nem vĂĄlaszolt többet. (ElnĂ©mult a döbbenettƑl.)

    Zhuangzi 22

CHAN ÁTADÁSI VONALA

John McRae nagy hatĂĄsĂș tanulmĂĄnya, a Seeing Through Zen (2003), a vonalvezetĂ©s (lineage) meghatĂĄrozĂł Ă©s központi szerepĂ©t vizsgĂĄlja a csan (chĂĄn çŠȘ) buddhizmusban. Megjegyzi, hogy ez a „genealĂłgiai” megközelĂ­tĂ©s annyira alapvetƑ a csan önĂ©rtelmezĂ©se szempontjĂĄbĂłl, hogy – bĂĄr nem elƑzmĂ©ny nĂ©lkĂŒli – teljesen egyedi vonĂĄsokkal rendelkezik. Ez a rendszer relĂĄciĂłs (mivel egyĂ©nek közötti interakciĂłra Ă©pĂŒl, nem pedig pusztĂĄn az egyĂ©ni erƑfeszĂ­tĂ©sre), generĂĄciĂłs (mivel szĂŒlƑ-gyermek, vagy pontosabban tanĂ­tĂł-tanĂ­tvĂĄny generĂĄciĂłk szerint szervezƑdik) Ă©s reiteratĂ­v, azaz ismĂ©tlƑdƑ (szĂĄndĂ©ka szerint mintakĂ©nt szolgĂĄl a jelenlegi Ă©s jövƑbeli tanĂ­tĂłk Ă©s tanĂ­tvĂĄnyok szĂĄmĂĄra, hogy azt Ă©letĂŒkben utĂĄnozzĂĄk Ă©s megismĂ©teljĂ©k).

KĂ©t fontos okot is javasolhatunk arra, miĂ©rt jĂĄtszik a vonalvezetĂ©s ilyen kulcsszerepet a csan buddhizmusban. Az elsƑ az, hogy a csan közössĂ©g nem tĂĄmaszkodott egyetlen mahĂĄjĂĄna szövegre sem alapvetƑ szentiratkĂ©nt. A HuĂĄ-yĂĄn (huĂĄyĂĄn zƍng èŻćšŽćź—) iskola pĂ©ldĂĄul az Avataáčsaka-szĂștrĂĄt (huĂĄyĂĄn jÄ«ng èŻćšŽç¶“) tekintette kulcsszövegĂ©nek; a NirvĂĄna-iskola (niĂšpĂĄn zƍng æ¶…æ§ƒćź—) a NirvĂĄna-szĂștrĂĄkat (niĂšpĂĄn jÄ«ng 涅槃經), Ă©s Ă­gy tovĂĄbb. Mivel nem volt egy speciĂĄlis szöveg, amellyel azonosĂ­thatta volna magĂĄt, a csan iskolĂĄnak a vonalvezetĂ©s koncepciĂłjĂĄhoz kellett nyĂșlnia. Ez azonban nem egy tĂșl erƑs Ă©rv. A csan vonalvezetĂ©sre helyezett hangsĂșlya mögött a fƑ ok egy erƑteljes konfuciĂĄnus hatĂĄs volt, amely meghatĂĄrozta, hogyan legitimĂĄlhatja magĂĄt a csan a legsikeresebben – kĂŒlönösen egy vĂĄrosi tĂĄrsadalomban, ahol a hatalmasok Ă©s a vagyonosok hoztĂĄk a szabĂĄlyokat. Olyan kutatĂłk, mint John Jorgenson Ă©s John McRae megjegyzik, hogy a csan vonalvezetĂ©s szoros pĂĄrhuzamot mutatott a kĂ­nai temetkezĂ©si szokĂĄsokkal.

    Az Ă©n ĂĄllĂĄspontom az, hogy a csan (chĂĄn çŠȘ) olyan formĂĄt biztosĂ­tott a buddhista gyakorlat szĂĄmĂĄra, amely illeszkedett a kĂ­nai temetkezĂ©si szokĂĄsok ĂĄltal sugallt pĂĄrtfogĂłi mintĂĄhoz. Ezen elemzĂ©s kiindulĂłpontja John Jorgenson megfigyelĂ©se a nyolcadik szĂĄzadi csan vonalvezetĂ©si igĂ©nyek Ă©s a temetkezĂ©si gyakorlat közötti strukturĂĄlis hasonlĂłsĂĄgokrĂłl, amelyben a csan pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄkat (zǔshÄ« ç„–ćž«) tisztelƑ csarnokok elrendezĂ©se a hagyomĂĄnyos Ƒsök csarnokainak (zǔmiĂ o ç„–ć»Ÿ) felĂ©pĂ­tĂ©sĂ©t tĂŒkrözte. SzĂ©lesebb perspektĂ­vĂĄbĂłl nĂ©zve a csan vonalvezetĂ©sek elszaporodĂĄsa a hagyomĂĄnyos csalĂĄdi genealĂłgiĂĄkat (jiāpǔ ćź¶è­œ) utĂĄnozza, a leszĂĄrmazĂĄs pĂĄrhuzamos birodalmĂĄt hozva lĂ©tre Ă©lƑk Ă©s holtak között. ValĂłban, mĂ­g a hagyomĂĄnyos genealĂłgiĂĄk egyedi, kĂŒlönĂĄllĂł csalĂĄdi csoportoknak szenteltek, a csan »lĂĄmpĂĄs ĂĄtadĂĄsi« (chuĂĄndēng 悳燈) szövegek a fiktĂ­v kapcsolatok egy egĂ©sz univerzumĂĄt teremtik meg. Így minden egyes gyakorlĂł biztonsĂĄgosan elhelyezkedik egy generĂĄciĂłs, egymĂĄst követƑ hĂĄlĂłzatban, Ă©s mindezek az utĂłdlĂĄsi kapcsolatok az egymĂĄsba kapcsolĂłdĂł identitĂĄsok egyetlen hatalmas hĂĄlĂłzatĂĄvĂĄ fƱzƑdnek össze. Ahol a hagyomĂĄnyos csalĂĄdi genealĂłgiĂĄk pĂĄrbeszĂ©dben ĂĄlltak egymĂĄssal Ă©s a kortĂĄrs tĂĄrsadalmi gyakorlattal, ott a »lĂĄmpĂĄs ĂĄtadĂĄsi« szövegek biztosĂ­tjĂĄk a csan vonalvezetĂ©si rendszer szĂĄmĂĄra a sajĂĄt globĂĄlis kontextust a vallĂĄsi identitĂĄs idealizĂĄlĂĄsĂĄhoz.

    McRae 2003: 148; reparagraphed

McRae rĂ©szletes kritikĂĄt fogalmaz meg a csan (chĂĄn çŠȘ) vonalvezetĂ©si hagyomĂĄnyĂĄval szemben, ugyanakkor megjegyzi, hogy az annyira központi jelentƑsĂ©gƱ volt a csan szĂĄmĂĄra, hogy nehĂ©z elkĂ©pzelni bĂĄrmilyen csanra vonatkozĂł igĂ©nyt a vonalvezetĂ©si igĂ©nyek nĂ©lkĂŒl. PĂ©ldĂĄul a japĂĄn szĂłtĂł (japĂĄnul: Sƍtƍ, kĂ­naiul: cĂĄodĂČng æ›č掞) iskolĂĄban a vonalvezetĂ©si tĂĄblĂĄzatok a sanmatsu (a dharma-ĂĄtadĂĄsi dokumentumok) központi rĂ©szĂ©t kĂ©pezik, Ă©s ezeket rendszeresen belefoglaljĂĄk a zen templomok Ă©s kolostorok napi kĂĄntĂĄlĂĄsaiba. JapĂĄnban a Tokugawa-korban (1600–1868) egyesek megkĂ©rdƑjeleztĂ©k a vonalvezetĂ©si rendszert Ă©s annak legitimitĂĄsĂĄt. Dokuan Genko (1630–1698) zen mester pĂ©ldĂĄul nyĂ­ltan kĂ©tsĂ©gbe vonta a tanĂ­tĂłtĂłl szĂĄrmazĂł Ă­rĂĄsos elismerĂ©s szĂŒksĂ©gessĂ©gĂ©t, amelyet „papĂ­r-zenkĂ©nt” vetett el. SzĂĄmos Tokugawa-kori tanĂ­tĂł nem tartotta magĂĄt a vonalvezetĂ©si rendszerhez; Ƒket mushi dokugo (wĂșshÄ« dĂșwĂč ç„Ąćž«çšæ‚Ÿ, „tanĂ­tĂł nĂ©lkĂŒl, önĂĄllĂłan Ă©bredt fel”) vagy jigo jisho (zĂŹwĂč zĂŹzhĂšng è‡Ș悟è‡Ș蚌, „önmagĂĄtĂłl Ă©bredt fel Ă©s önmagĂĄt igazolta”) nĂ©vvel illettĂ©k. A modern csan-szon-zen buddhistĂĄk ĂĄltalĂĄban kisebb jelentƑsĂ©get tulajdonĂ­tanak a vonalvezetĂ©si rendszer dinamikĂĄjĂĄnak – rĂ©szben a csan törtĂ©nelmĂ©vel kapcsolatos tudomĂĄnyos kutatĂĄsok feltĂĄrĂĄsaitĂłl ösztönözve –, Ă©s inkĂĄbb a spirituĂĄlis tanulmĂĄnyokra, valamint a kontemplatĂ­v gyakorlatra összpontosĂ­tanak. Emellett tapasztalhatĂł egyfajta hallgatĂłlagos nyitottsĂĄg mĂĄs buddhista hagyomĂĄnyok, kĂŒlönösen a korai buddhismus irĂĄnyĂĄba is.

A Gong An (公案)

A gƍng’àn (ć…ŹæĄˆ) Ă©s a kānhuĂ  chĂĄn (看話çŠȘ)

TörtĂ©nelmileg – ahogyan azt a csan (chĂĄn çŠȘ) hagyomĂĄnyok Ă©rtelmezik – a gƍng’àn (ć…ŹæĄˆ, japĂĄnul: koan) egy rövid mondĂĄs, pĂĄrbeszĂ©d vagy anekdota volt, amelyet a hagiogrĂĄfiĂĄkbĂłl (chuĂĄndēng lĂč 悳燈錄 – lĂĄmpĂĄs ĂĄtadĂĄsi feljegyzĂ©sek) Ă©s a diskurzus-feljegyzĂ©sekbƑl (yǔlĂč èȘžéŒ„) emeltek ki. A pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄk mondĂĄsaihoz fƱzött kommentĂĄrok gyakorlata a tizedik szĂĄzad közepi csan irodalomban jelent meg elƑször. Ezt megelƑzƑen a pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄk feljegyzĂ©seibƑl szĂĄrmazĂł, kommentĂĄrra szĂĄnt passzusokat „rĂ©gi esetek” (gǔzĂ© ć€ć‰‡) nĂ©ven ismertĂ©k. Ahogy Foulk megjegyzi, ez a gyakorlat „nem csupĂĄn az Ƒsi pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄk bölcsessĂ©gĂ©nek megvilĂĄgosĂ­tĂĄsĂĄra szolgĂĄlt a tanĂ­tvĂĄnyok vagy a szĂ©lesebb közönsĂ©g kedvéért. EszközkĂ©nt szolgĂĄlt magĂĄnak a mesternek a rangja Ă©s spirituĂĄlis tekintĂ©lye demonstrĂĄlĂĄsĂĄra is.” (2000: 17).

A 11. szĂĄzad mĂĄsodik felĂ©tƑl kezdƑdƑen összeĂĄllĂ­tott diskurzus-feljegyzĂ©sek (yǔlĂč èȘžéŒ„) gyakran tartalmaznak kĂŒlönĂĄllĂł szakaszokat „KommentĂĄrok rĂ©gi esetekhez” cĂ­mmel; ezek megnevezĂ©se lehet jǔgǔ (æ“§ć€) [helyesen: æ“§ć€], azaz „rĂ©gi esetek felidĂ©zĂ©se”, vagy niāngǔ (æ‹ˆć€), „egy Ƒsi precedens felemelĂ©se”, esetleg niāntĂ­ (拈提), „egy pont felvetĂ©se kĂ©rdĂ©sre vagy elemzĂ©sre”. A niāngǔ (æ‹ˆć€) kifejezĂ©s gyakran fordul elƑ a niāngǔ sĂČnggǔ (æ‹ˆć€é Œć€) összetĂ©telben, ami annyit tesz: felvetni (niān) Ă©s elemezni egy Ƒsi precedenst, majd megĂ­rni Ă©s hozzĂĄfƱzni a sajĂĄt versĂŒnket (sĂČng 頌). Ez egy jĂłl ismert csan-szon-zen irodalmi mƱfaj. Az ilyen esetekre vagy törtĂ©netekre a tanĂ­tĂĄs sorĂĄn soha nem hivatkoztak teljes terjedelmĂŒkben, csupĂĄn utaltak rĂĄjuk, ami feltĂ©telezi, hogy a tanĂ­tvĂĄny vagy a közönsĂ©g mĂĄr jĂłl ismeri Ƒket. Úgy tƱnik, ezek a cserĂ©k szĂłban törtĂ©ntek.

A 11. szĂĄzad közepĂ©re ezek a diskurzus-feljegyzĂ©sek mĂĄr tartalmaztak „versek rĂ©gi esetekre” (sĂČnggǔ é Œć€, szĂł szerint: „Ƒsi dicsƑítƑ Ă©nekek”) elnevezĂ©sƱ szakaszokat. A jĂłl ismert rĂ©gi esetekkel ellentĂ©tben, amelyekre csak utaltak, ezeket a (csan mesterek ĂĄltal alkalomszerƱen Ă­rt) verskommentĂĄrokat gyakran teljes terjedelmĂŒkben idĂ©ztĂ©k az alapeset (běnzĂ© æœŹć‰‡) mellett, hogy a közönsĂ©g jobban Ă©rtĂ©kelhesse a költƑi magyarĂĄzatot. Ez arra is utal, hogy ezek a versek nem voltak annyira ismertek, mint maguk a rĂ©gi esetek. A rĂ©gi eseteket kĂ©sƑbb gƍng’àn (ć…ŹæĄˆ, japĂĄnul: koan) nĂ©ven kezdtĂ©k hĂ­vni, de nem teljesen vilĂĄgos, hogyan törtĂ©nt ez az ĂĄtmenet. A gƍng’àn kifejezĂ©st kezdetben csak ĂĄtvitt Ă©rtelemben hasznĂĄltĂĄk. Eredetileg nem is buddhista szakkifejezĂ©s volt, hanem a közĂ©pkori kĂ­nai jogrendszerbƑl szĂĄrmazott. Maga a terminus utalhatott egy kĂ­nai bĂ­rĂł Ă­rĂłasztalĂĄra, de vonatkozhatott egy összetett jogi ĂŒgyre is, ahol a gƍng (慬) jelentĂ©se „nyilvĂĄnos, hivatalos, elfogulatlan”, az Ă n (æĄˆ) pedig „jogi esetet” jelent. Az egyik legkorĂĄbbi hivatkozĂĄs erre a 11. szĂĄzad közepĂ©n bukkan fel XuědĂČu ChĂłngxiǎn (meghalt 1052-ben) munkĂĄjĂĄban, a „XuědĂČu szerzetes versei rĂ©gi esetekre” (XuědĂČuxiǎn hĂ©shĂ ng sĂČnggǔ é›Șç«‡é‡éĄŻć’Œć°šé Œć€) cĂ­mƱ gyƱjtemĂ©nyben; ez az az eredeti 100 eset, amely a KĂ©k szikla gyƱjtemĂ©ny (BĂŹyĂĄn lĂč çą§ć·–éŒ„) alapjĂĄul szolgĂĄlt.

Több mint egy Ă©vszĂĄzaddal kĂ©sƑbb, YuĂĄnwĂč KĂšqĂ­n (ćœ“æ‚Ÿć…‹ć‹€, 1063–1135) a „XuědĂČu szerzetes versei rĂ©gi esetekre” fƱzött kommentĂĄrjĂĄban (amely a „KĂ©k szikla gyƱjtemĂ©nyben” [BĂŹyĂĄn jĂŹ 繧淖玀] maradt fenn), mĂĄr egyĂ©rtelmƱen a gƍng’àn (ć…ŹæĄˆ) kifejezĂ©st hasznĂĄlja magukra a pĂĄrbeszĂ©dekre mint szövegekre utalva. BevezetƑiben (chuĂ­shĂŹ 枂ç€ș) Ă©s prĂłzai kommentĂĄrjaiban (pĂ­ngchĂ ng è©•ć”±) YuĂĄnwĂč mindvĂ©gig gƍng’àn-nak nevezi a rĂ©gi eseteket. Ahogy Foulk megjegyzi, YuĂĄnwĂč ezzel azt sugallta, hogy amikor XuědĂČu összegyƱjtötte Ă©s magyarĂĄzatokkal lĂĄtta el ezeket, egy bĂ­rĂł (magisztrĂĄtus) szerepĂ©t öltötte magĂĄra.

LegkorĂĄbbi hasznĂĄlatakor a gƍng’àn (ć…ŹæĄˆ) kifejezĂ©st arra hasznĂĄltĂĄk, hogy a csan (chĂĄn çŠȘ) mester spirituĂĄlis tekintĂ©lyĂ©t egy bĂ­rĂł törvĂ©nyes hatalmĂĄhoz hasonlĂ­tsĂĄk, nem pedig a pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄk rĂ©gi eseteire valĂł hivatkozĂĄskĂ©nt. Ennek megfelelƑen maradtak rĂĄnk törtĂ©netek csan mesterekrƑl, akik „harminc ĂŒtĂ©st” (sānshĂ­ bĂ ng äž‰ćæŁ’) mĂ©rtek a tanĂ­tvĂĄnyra, ha az bƱnös volt a helytelen vĂĄlaszban. A 13. szĂĄzad vĂ©gĂ©re, a mongol JĂŒan-dinasztia (YuĂĄn 慃) idejĂ©re a rĂ©gi esetek mĂĄr olyanokkĂĄ vĂĄltak, mint a jogilag kötelezƑ erejƱ dokumentumok; „az elkĂ©pzelĂ©s az volt, hogy ezeket a spirituĂĄlis megvalĂłsĂ­tĂĄs megĂ­tĂ©lĂ©sĂ©nek hiteles mĂ©rvĂŒkĂ©ĂŒl kell tekinteni” (Foulk 2000: 18). Ez igen vilĂĄgosan megjelenik a DĂ huĂŹ Zƍnggǎo hagyomĂĄnyĂĄt követƑ jĂŒan-kori szerzetes, Zhƍngfēng MĂ­ngběn (äž­ćł°æ˜ŽæœŹ, 1263–1323) „Zhƍngfēng szerzetes kiterjedt feljegyzĂ©sei” (Zhƍngfēng hĂ©shĂ ng guǎng lĂč äž­ćł°ć’Œć°šć»ŁéŒ„) cĂ­mƱ mƱvĂ©ben. Zhƍngfēng a következƑ rĂ©szletes meghatĂĄrozĂĄst adja a gƍng’àn-rĂłl:

    A gƍng’àn (ć…ŹæĄˆ) a nyilvĂĄnos bĂ­rĂłsĂĄg jogi eseteihez hasonlĂ­thatĂł. Az, hogy az uralkodĂłnak sikerĂŒl-e rendet teremtenie birodalmĂĄban, lĂ©nyegĂ©ben a törvĂ©ny lĂ©tezĂ©sĂ©tƑl fĂŒgg. A gƍng (慬) vagy »nyilvĂĄnos« az az egyetlen ösvĂ©ny, amelyet minden bölcs Ă©s mĂ©ltĂł ember egyarĂĄnt követ; a legmagasabb elv, amely ĂștkĂ©nt szolgĂĄl az egĂ©sz vilĂĄg szĂĄmĂĄra. Az Ă n (æĄˆ) vagy »feljegyzĂ©sek« azok az ortodox Ă­rĂĄsok, amelyek rögzĂ­tik, mit tekintenek a bölcsek Ă©s mĂ©ltĂł emberek alapelveknek
. A koanok nem egyetlen ember magĂĄnvĂ©lemĂ©nyĂ©t kĂ©pviselik, hanem azt a legmagasabb elvet, amelyet mi Ă©s a hĂĄrom birodalom, valamint a tĂ­z irĂĄny sokezer bodhiszattvĂĄja egyarĂĄnt elfogadunk. Ez az elv összhangban van a spirituĂĄlis forrĂĄssal, egybevĂĄg a titokzatos Ă©rtelemmel, elpusztĂ­tja a szĂŒletĂ©st Ă©s halĂĄlt, Ă©s meghaladja a szenvedĂ©lyeket. Nem Ă©rthetƑ meg logikĂĄval; nem adhatĂł ĂĄt szavakkal; nem magyarĂĄzhatĂł meg Ă­rĂĄsban; nem mĂ©rhetƑ Ă©sszel. Olyan, mint egy mĂ©rgezett dob, amely megöl mindenkit, aki hallja, vagy mint egy hatalmas tƱz, amely elemĂ©szt mindenkit, aki a közelĂ©be Ă©r... A koanok olyan eszközök, amelyeket csak Ă©ber tudatĂș emberek hasznĂĄlhatnak, akik bizonyĂ­tani kĂ­vĂĄnjĂĄk megĂ©rtĂ©sĂŒket. BizonyĂĄra nem arra szĂĄntĂĄk Ƒket, hogy csupĂĄn az ember tudĂĄsĂĄt gyarapĂ­tsĂĄk, vagy tĂ©mĂĄt szolgĂĄltassanak ĂŒres vitĂĄkhoz. A csan (chĂĄn çŠȘ) Ășgynevezett tiszteletremĂ©ltĂł mesterei a szerzetesi közössĂ©g nyilvĂĄnos bĂ­rĂłsĂĄgainak fƑtisztviselƑi, mondĂĄsaik gyƱjtemĂ©nyei pedig a hatĂĄrozottan kĂ©pviselt elvek eseti feljegyzĂ©sei. AlkalmankĂ©nt a rĂ©gi idƑk emberei a tanĂ­tĂĄs szĂŒneteiben, szabad pillanataikban, amikor ajtajaik zĂĄrva voltak, elƑvettĂ©k ezeket az eseti feljegyzĂ©seket, elrendeztĂ©k, Ă­tĂ©letet mondtak felettĂŒk, dicsƑítƑ verseket szereztek hozzĂĄjuk, Ă©s megĂ­rtĂĄk sajĂĄt vĂĄlaszaikat rĂĄjuk. Bizonyosan nem azĂ©rt tettĂ©k ezt, hogy fitogtassĂĄk mƱveltsĂ©gĂŒket, vagy ellentmondjanak a rĂ©gi korok mĂ©ltĂł embereinek. InkĂĄbb azĂ©rt tettĂ©k, mert nem tudtĂĄk elviselni a gondolatot, hogy a nagy Dharma (fǎ æł•) megromolhat. EzĂ©rt folyamodtak ĂŒgyes eszközökhöz (upāya), hogy felnyissĂĄk a kĂ©sƑbbi nemzedĂ©kek bölcsessĂ©g-szemĂ©t, remĂ©lve, hogy ezĂĄltal lehetƑvĂ© teszik szĂĄmukra, hogy ugyanĂșgy elĂ©rjĂ©k a nagy Dharma megĂ©rtĂ©sĂ©t önmaguk szĂĄmĂĄra.

Zhƍngfēng volt az, aki leĂ­rta, hogy a gƍng’àn (ć…ŹæĄˆ) a gƍngfǔ zhÄ« Ă ndĂș (慬ćșœä苿Ąˆç‰˜) kifejezĂ©s rövidĂ­tĂ©se, ami a Tang-dinasztia idejĂ©n „nyilvĂĄnos hatĂłsĂĄgi iratot” jelentett. A gƍng’àn törtĂ©netĂ©ben a Szung-kor (SĂČng 漋) jelentett fordulĂłpontot a „szĂł-szemlĂ©lƑ csan” (kānhuĂ  chĂĄn 看話çŠȘ) kifejlesztĂ©sĂ©vel. A szemlĂ©lni kĂ­vĂĄnt „szĂłt vagy kifejezĂ©st” (huĂ tĂłu 話頭) ĂĄltalĂĄban az Ƒsi pĂĄrbeszĂ©dek egy-egy alapesetĂ©bƑl (běnzĂ© æœŹć‰‡) vezettĂ©k le. Ezen Ășj csan-technika legfƑbb nĂ©pszerƱsĂ­tƑje DĂ huĂŹ Zƍnggǎo (ć€§æ…§ćź—æČ, 1089–1163) volt, a Szung-kori szerzetesek közĂŒl a leghĂ­resebb. Foulk feltĂ©telezĂ©se szerint DĂ huĂŹ Ășgy Ă©rezte, hogy a „nĂ©ma megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs csan” (mĂČzhĂ o chĂĄn 默照çŠȘ) hiĂĄba prĂłbĂĄl bölcsessĂ©get vagy belĂĄtĂĄst (guān 觀, szanszkritul: vipaƛyanā) nyerni anĂ©lkĂŒl, hogy elƑször elĂ©rnĂ© a nyugalmat (zhǐ æ­ą, szanszkritul: ƛamatha). Megjegyzi azonban, hogy ez valĂłszĂ­nƱleg puszta retorika volt. Hiszen: „ha DĂ huĂŹt csak az öntudatlan ĂĄllapotok (dhjĂĄna) elƑmozdĂ­tĂĄsa Ă©rdekelte volna a diskurzĂ­v gondolkodĂĄs elvĂĄgĂĄsĂĄnak eszközkĂ©nt, akkor teljesen elkerĂŒlhette volna a pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄk szavait, Ă©s mĂĄs, teljesen nem-diskurzĂ­v mentĂĄlis koncentrĂĄciĂłs tĂĄrgyakat ajĂĄnlott volna, mint pĂ©ldĂĄul a kaszina-eszközöket (biĂ nchĂč 遍處, szanszkritul: kasiáč‡a).” (2000: 23).

A kulcsfontossĂĄgĂș tĂ©ny tovĂĄbbra is az marad – ahogy Foulk rĂĄmutat –, hogy a gƍng’àn (ć…ŹæĄˆ) egy irodalmi mƱfaj. Ez magyarĂĄzza azt is, miĂ©rt nem „értelmes” a gƍng’àn a beavatatlanok szĂĄmĂĄra. A gƍng’ànok azĂ©rt kĂ©pesek kifejteni erejĂŒket a csan (chĂĄn çŠȘ) gondolkodĂĄsban Ă©s tĂĄrsadalomban, „mert az, ami a szavakat vagy tetteket a »megvilĂĄgosodott emberek mentĂĄlis ĂĄllapotĂĄnak kifejezƑdĂ©sekĂ©nt« azonosĂ­tja, sohasem maguknak a szavaknak a szemantikai tartalma, hanem kizĂĄrĂłlag az, hogy egy pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄnak tulajdonĂ­tjĂĄk Ƒket egy »lĂĄmpĂĄs-törtĂ©neti« (dēnglĂč 燈錄) Ă©letrajzban, egy diskurzus-feljegyzĂ©sben vagy (kĂ©sƑbb) egy koan-gyƱjtemĂ©nyben.” (2000: 39). A gƍng’àn (japĂĄnul: koan) hosszĂș utat tett meg, Ă©s mĂĄra bekerĂŒlt a nĂ©pszerƱ szĂłkincsbe, ahol „paradoxont, rejtĂ©lyt vagy enigmĂĄt” jelent. LĂ©tezik mĂ©g egy szingapĂșri weboldal is, ahol a koant Ă©desanyĂĄknak ajĂĄnljĂĄk (ami vĂ©gĂŒl is nem is olyan rossz ötlet)! Az alĂĄbbiakban azt is megvitatjuk, hogyan lehet hasznos a koan tanĂĄcsadĂłi eszközkĂ©nt. ElƑbb azonban beszĂ©ljĂŒnk egy tĂ©mĂĄrĂłl, amely szorosan kapcsolĂłdik a gƍng’ànhöz Ă©s a tanĂĄcsadĂĄshoz: a kĂ©tsĂ©grƑl.

A CSAN ÉS A KÉTSÉG

Figyelmen kĂ­vĂŒl hagyva a vilĂĄgias csant, az elitista csant Ă©s mĂĄs „nem-csanos” csan irĂĄnyzatokat, a hagyomĂĄnyos vagy spirituĂĄlis csan (chĂĄn çŠȘ) az Ă©bersĂ©gre, a mentĂĄlis fĂłkuszra Ă©s a nyelv, valamint a gondolkodĂĄs meghaladĂĄsa ĂĄltali felszabadulĂĄsra helyezi a hangsĂșlyt. Lehet, hogy a nyelv Ă©s a gondolkodĂĄs a leggyakoribb mĂłdja mƱködĂ©sĂŒnknek vagy kommunikĂĄciĂłnknak, de nem mindig ezek a szemĂ©lyes tapasztalĂĄs vagy a közlĂ©s leghatĂ©konyabb eszközei. A nyelv (mivel emberi konstrukciĂł) Ă©s a gondolat (mivel mentĂĄlis konstrukciĂł) elkerĂŒlhetetlen tĂĄptalajai a kĂ©tsĂ©gnek vagy a „kĂ©tsĂ©g Ă©rzĂ©sĂ©nek” (yĂ­qĂ­ng 疑情), ahogy a csan gyakran nevezi; a kĂ©tsĂ©g pedig az egyik legnagyobb akadĂĄlya a szellemi mƱvelƑdĂ©snek Ă©s a spirituĂĄlis megvalĂłsĂ­tĂĄsnak. MĂ©gis, ugyanez a mĂ©reg – megfelelƑen megĂ©rtve – a bölcsessĂ©g kapuja is egyben. A csan egyik legmaradandĂłbb Ă©s legtanulsĂĄgosabb vonĂĄsa a vallĂĄsos kĂ©telkedĂ©s irĂĄnti hajlama; nem mintha a kĂ©telkedĂ©s önmagĂĄban jĂł lenne, hanem mert ez a kutatĂĄs kezdete, amely a felszabadĂ­tĂł bölcsessĂ©ghez vezet. KĂ©telkedni annyit tesz, mint tudni, hogy mĂ©g nem szabadultunk fel, Ă©s magĂĄban foglalja a kĂ©tsĂ©g feltĂ©teleinek keresĂ©sĂ©t. Ebben az Ă©rtelemben a kĂ©telkedĂ©s elvezet a tudĂĄshoz. Ez azonban egy dinamikus fajta kĂ©telkedĂ©s, nem pedig kĂ©pessĂ©geink vagy gyengesĂ©geink puszta Ă©szlelĂ©se. KĂ©tsĂ©g tĂĄmadt a fiatal Bodhiszattva elmĂ©jĂ©ben is, amikor meglĂĄtta az elsƑ hĂĄrom jelensĂ©get: az öregembert, a beteget Ă©s a halottat (a hĂĄrom nagy baj megnyilvĂĄnulĂĄsait), de ez indĂ­totta Ƒt arra is, hogy megoldĂĄst keressen rĂĄjuk – Ă©s Ă­gy vĂĄlt BuddhĂĄvĂĄ.

A kĂ©tsĂ©g megakadĂĄlyozza a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄst; olyan, mint egy zĂĄrt ajtĂł. A kĂ©tsĂ©g ajtajĂĄnak kinyitĂĄsa egyet jelent a kĂ©tsĂ©g elpusztĂ­tĂĄsĂĄval. Ez a „közvetlenĂŒl az emberi elmĂ©re mutatĂĄssal” (jiĂ o wĂ i biĂ© zhuĂ n æ•™ć€–ćˆ„ć‚ł – tanĂ­tĂĄson kĂ­vĂŒli kĂŒlön ĂĄtadĂĄs) törtĂ©nik, vagyis a nyelv korlĂĄtainak meghaladĂĄsĂĄval vagy megkerĂŒlĂ©sĂ©vel, Ă©s a valĂłsĂĄg közvetlen lĂĄtĂĄsĂĄval (ez a fogalom a korai buddhista meditĂĄciĂłban is fontos volt). Ennek leghĂ­resebb mĂłdja a koan (gƍng’àn ć…ŹæĄˆ) volt: a nyelv hatĂĄrainak vĂ©gsƑkig feszĂ­tĂ©se, egĂ©szen annak teljes lerombolĂĄsĂĄig. DĂ huĂŹ Zƍnggǎo (ć€§æ…§ćź—æČ) nagyon komolyan vette a kĂ©tsĂ©g eszmĂ©jĂ©t, Ă©s figyelmeztette tanĂ­tvĂĄnyait, hogy mindig kĂ©telkedniĂŒk kell a szavakban, nehogy azok becsapjĂĄk Ƒket. ValĂłjĂĄban sajĂĄt lĂ©tezĂ©sĂŒkben is kĂ©telkedniĂŒk kellene. Azt mondta: „Sok mai tanĂ­tvĂĄny nem önmagĂĄban kĂ©telkedik, hanem mĂĄsokban. Pedig azt mondjĂĄk: »A nagy kĂ©tsĂ©gben szĂŒksĂ©gszerƱen ott rejlik a nagy megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs«.” Ezt öt Ă©vszĂĄzaddal kĂ©sƑbb a nagy japĂĄn rinzai (Rinzai) tanĂ­tĂł, Hakuin (1685–1768) is ĂĄtvette, aki szintĂ©n azt tanĂ­totta, hogy a „nagy kĂ©tsĂ©g” (daigo 性疑) elengedhetetlen a valĂłsĂĄgra valĂł rĂĄĂ©bredĂ©shez.

GĀOFĒNG YUÁNMIÀO (é«˜ćł°ćŽŸćŠ™)

KĂ­nĂĄban, mĂ©g közvetlenĂŒl DĂ huĂŹ elƑtt, sajĂĄt tanĂ­tĂłja, YuĂĄnwĂč KĂšqĂ­n (ćœ“æ‚Ÿć…‹ć‹€) a „kĂ©tsĂ©g Ă©rzĂ©sĂ©t” (yĂ­qĂ­ng 疑情) mĂ©g a hagyomĂĄnyos, korai buddhista mĂłdon kezelte: „olyasvalamikĂ©nt, ami kĂĄros a hitre nĂ©zve, Ă©s amit mindenkor szorgalmasan kerĂŒlni kell – kĂŒlönösen a gƍng’àn (ć…ŹæĄˆ) vizsgĂĄlata sorĂĄn.” YuĂĄnwĂč hĂ­res tanĂ­tvĂĄnya, DĂ huĂŹ volt az, aki – mint lĂĄttuk – a feje tetejĂ©re ĂĄllĂ­totta a kĂ©tsĂ©grƑl szĂłlĂł tanĂ­tĂĄst, „helyette a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs felĂ© hajtĂł fƑ erƑkĂ©nt Ă©rtelmezve azt Ășjra.” DĂ huĂŹ „szĂł-szemlĂ©lƑ csanjĂĄnak” (kānhuĂ  chĂĄn 看話çŠȘ) legszisztematikusabb bemutatĂĄsa azonban a ChĂĄnyĂ o (çŠȘ芁, „A csan lĂ©nyege”) cĂ­mƱ mƱben talĂĄlhatĂł, amelyet a JĂŒan-dinasztia (YuĂĄn 慃) LĂ­njĂŹ (è‡šæżŸ) mestere, Gāofēng YuĂĄnmiĂ o (é«˜ćł°ćŽŸćŠ™, 1239–1295) Ă­rt. Gāofēng fƑ munkĂĄja az volt, hogy a kānhuĂ  chĂĄn gyakorlatĂĄt hĂĄrom fƑ rĂ©szbe rendszerezte, amelyeket „a hĂĄrom lĂ©nyegnek” (sānyĂ o 䞉芁) nevezett: (1) a nagy hit kĂ©pessĂ©ge (dĂ xĂŹn'gĂšn 性俥æ č); (2) a nagy szenvedĂ©lyes elszĂĄntsĂĄg (dĂ fĂšnzhĂŹ ć€§æ†€ćż—); Ă©s (3) a nagy kĂ©tsĂ©gĂ©rzet (dĂ yĂ­qĂ­ng ć€§ç–‘æƒ…). Gāofēng a hitet a kĂ©tsĂ©g „lĂ©nyegekĂ©nt” (tǐ 體), a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄst pedig a kĂ©tsĂ©g „funkciĂłjakĂ©nt” (yĂČng 甹) kezelte – merĂ­tve a nĂ©pszerƱ apokrif mƱbƑl, A hit Ă©bredĂ©se a mahĂĄjĂĄnĂĄban (DĂ shĂ©ng qǐxĂŹn lĂčn 性äč˜è”·äżĄè«–) cĂ­mƱ szövegbƑl. Mivel gyakorlatilag minden szinitikus vagy kelet-ĂĄzsiai buddhizmus alapköve az, hogy a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs minden lĂ©nyben benne rejlik, Gāofēng kifejtette: vĂ©gsƑ soron a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs elĂ©rĂ©sĂ©hez mindössze teljes szĂ­vvel hinni kell – vagyis elengedni azt a kĂ©pzetet, hogy nem vagyunk megvilĂĄgosodottak! ÉrvelĂ©se a ChĂĄnyĂ o-ban olvashatĂł: „A hit a kĂ©tsĂ©g lĂ©nyege (tǐ 體), a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs a kĂ©tsĂ©g funkciĂłja (yĂČng 甹). Ha a hit szĂĄzszĂĄzalĂ©kos, a kĂ©tsĂ©g is az. Ha a kĂ©tsĂ©g szĂĄzszĂĄzalĂ©kos, a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs is az.” Ez termĂ©szetesen Gāofēng lĂĄtĂĄsmĂłdja volt, amelyet DĂ huĂŹ is jĂłvĂĄhagyott.

DÀHUÌ ZÌNGGǍO (ć€§æ…§ćź—æČ)

A 12. szĂĄzadi csan mester, DĂ huĂŹ Zƍnggǎo (ć€§æ…§ćź—æČ, 1089–1163) – akit röviden gyakran csak DĂ huĂŹkĂ©nt emlĂ­tenek – YuĂĄnwĂč KĂšqĂ­n (ćœ“æ‚Ÿć…‹ć‹€, 1063–1135) tanĂ­tvĂĄnya Ă©s a csan LĂ­njĂŹ (è‡šæżŸ) vonalĂĄnak 12. generĂĄciĂłs kĂ©pviselƑje volt. LeginkĂĄbb a gƍng’àn (ć…ŹæĄˆ), azaz a koan lelkes pĂĄrtfogĂłjakĂ©nt vĂĄlt ismerttĂ©, mint a csan megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs elĂ©rĂ©sĂ©nek eszközéé. DĂ huĂŹ szerĂ©ny körĂŒlmĂ©nyek közĂŒl indult: tĂ­zĂ©ves korĂĄban egy tƱzvĂ©sz emĂ©sztette fel csalĂĄdja vagyonĂĄt. 1101-ben, tizenhĂĄrom Ă©vesen fĂ©lbehagyta alig megkezdett klasszikus tanulmĂĄnyait, hogy szerzetesnek ĂĄlljon. DĂ huĂŹt tizenhat Ă©vesen nyĂ­rtĂĄk tonzĂșrĂĄra, Ă©s a következƑ Ă©vben rĂ©szesĂŒlt a formĂĄlis avatĂĄsban (a fogadalmak letĂ©telĂ©ben). Szellemileg briliĂĄns fiatal szerzeteskĂ©nt vonzottĂĄk az innovatĂ­v YĂșnmĂ©n WĂ©nyǎn (é›Čé–€æ–‡ćƒ, 864–949) munkĂĄi. Úgy tartjĂĄk, egy mahĂĄjĂĄna szöveg olvasĂĄsa közben mĂ©ly vallĂĄsi Ă©lmĂ©nyben volt rĂ©sze. A következƑ Ă©vben vĂĄndorĂștra indult, hogy kĂŒlönbözƑ mestereknĂ©l tanuljon, olykor egyetlen Ă©v alatt több tanĂ­tĂłt is felkeresve. E mesterek többsĂ©ge a CĂĄodĂČng (æ›č掞, japĂĄnul: Sƍtƍ) iskolĂĄhoz tartozott, amelynek rendszerĂ©t ĂĄllĂ­tĂłlag kĂ©t Ă©v alatt elsajĂĄtĂ­totta – csak azĂ©rt, hogy kĂ©sƑbb elĂ­tĂ©lje Ƒket!

1116-ban (amikor DĂ huĂŹ 27 Ă©ves volt) talĂĄlkozott a visszavonult Ă©szaki Szung-kori miniszterelnökkel Ă©s vilĂĄgi buddhista tudĂłssal, Zhāng ShĂ ngyĂ­nggel (ćŒ”ć°šç›ˆ, 1043–1122), majd valamivel kĂ©sƑbb HĂĄn Zǐcānggal (éŸ“ć­è’Œ, kb. 1086–1135), a csĂĄszĂĄri csalĂĄd egyik rokonĂĄval. Mindketten fontos hatĂĄst gyakoroltak az Ă©letĂ©re. MegfelelƑ idƑben azt javasoltĂĄk neki, hogy tanuljon YuĂĄnwĂč KĂšqĂ­nnĂ©l, akinek közössĂ©gĂ©hez 1125-ben csatlakozott. Ekkor fogadalmat tett magĂĄban...

    「限äčć€ïŒŒè‹„ć…¶èȘȘ䞍異諞æ–čïŒŒäž”æ˜“ć°ćŻïŒŒæŸç•¶è‘—ç„ĄçŠȘè«–ïŒŒäžćŸ©è‹Šćżƒć‹žćŠ›ïŒŒć€ć€æ–Œć…¶é–“ïŒŒćŻ§è¶šç¶“è«–ïŒŒç©ćŸ·çŽŻèĄŒïŒŒç‚șäœœäœ›çšźć­äč‹ć› ă€‚ă€ Kilenc nyarat adok e mesternek hatĂĄridƑkĂ©nt. Ha tanĂ­tĂĄsa nem kĂŒlönbözik a többi mesterĂ©tƑl, Ă©s ha könnyƱszerrel megadja nekem az elismerĂ©sĂ©t, akkor Ă­rni fogok egy Ă©rtekezĂ©st, amelyben elĂ­tĂ©lem a csan (chĂĄn çŠȘ) buddhizmust, ahelyett, hogy tovĂĄbb sanyargatnĂĄm a szellememet Ă©s Ă©rtĂ©kes idƑt pazarolnĂ©k rĂĄ. Ekkor inkĂĄbb egy szĂștrĂĄnak vagy Ă©rtekezĂ©snek szentelem magam, Ă©s erĂ©nyeket gyƱjtök, hogy [következƑ Ă©letemben] buddhistakĂ©nt szĂŒlethessek ĂșjjĂĄ.

    DĂ huĂŹ PǔjuĂ© ChĂĄnshÄ« NiĂĄnpǔ (ć€§æ…§æ™źèŠșçŠȘćž«ćčŽè­œ) 47. kötet, 1998a szĂĄmĂș szöveg.

Alig hat hĂ©t elteltĂ©vel DĂ huĂŹnak megvilĂĄgosodĂĄsi Ă©lmĂ©nye volt YuĂĄnwĂč egyik prĂ©dikĂĄciĂłja sorĂĄn. Azonban az, hogy YuĂĄnwĂč hitelesĂ­tse ezt a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄst, mĂĄr mĂĄs lapra tartozott. YuĂĄnwĂč azt az utasĂ­tĂĄst adta neki, hogy dolgozzon a következƑ koanon: „A Keleti HegysĂ©g a vĂ­zen jĂĄr”. Az egyik alkalommal YuĂĄnwĂč Ă­gy dorgĂĄlta meg DĂ huĂŹt: „A te nagy problĂ©mĂĄd az, hogy nem kĂ©telkedsz elĂ©ggĂ© a szavakban!” (bĂčyĂ­ yǔjĂč, shĂŹ wĂ©i dĂ bĂŹng 侍疑èȘžć„, æ˜Żç‚ș性病). EzutĂĄn egy Ășj koant kapott: „Lenni Ă©s nem lenni – olyan ez, mint a fĂĄra tĂĄmaszkodĂł lilaakĂĄc” (yǒu jĂč wĂșjĂč, rĂștĂ©ng yÄ«shĂč æœ‰ć„ç„Ąć„, ćŠ‚ç±äŸæšč). Naponta hĂĄromszor-nĂ©gyszer tett jelentĂ©st mesterĂ©nek, de az minden alkalommal közölte vele, hogy tĂ©ved. KörĂŒlbelĂŒl hat hĂłnap alatt összesen 49 ilyen kĂ­sĂ©rletet tett. Csak 1125 ötödik havĂĄban Ă©rte el a vĂ©gleges csan ĂĄttörĂ©st. MĂ©g ha ez a beszĂĄmolĂł tĂșlzĂł is, azt mutatja, hogy vagy DĂ huĂŹ volt rendĂŒlhetetlenĂŒl tĂŒrelmes Ă©s elszĂĄnt tanĂ­tvĂĄny, vagy YuĂĄnwĂč akart megbizonyosodni arrĂłl, hogy vĂ©gleg kigyĂłgyĂ­totta DĂ huĂŹt a bĂŒszkesĂ©gĂ©bƑl. Figyelembe vĂ©ve, hogy DĂ huĂŹ ekkor mĂ©g ugyanolyan szamszĂĄrikus (vilĂĄgi) volt, mint korĂĄbban – talĂĄn ezen a ponton mĂ©g inkĂĄbb –, ez a beszĂĄmolĂł a dicsƑítĂ©sĂ©t szolgĂĄlhatta, ami tovĂĄbb növelte vonalvezetĂ©se tekintĂ©lyĂ©t.

Ugyanebben az Ă©vben (1125) DĂ huĂŹ megkapta a bĂ­bor ruhĂĄt (zǐyÄ« çŽ«èĄŁ) LushuntĂłl, a jobboldali minisztertƑl (yĂČudĂ chĂ©n ćłć€§è‡Ł). A következƑ Ă©vben azonban a dzsĂŒrcsi tatĂĄrok (Nǚzhēn ć„łçœŸ) elfoglaltĂĄk az Északi Szung (SĂČng) fƑvĂĄrosĂĄt, BiĂ njÄ«nget (a mai Kajfeng, Henan), a csĂĄszĂĄri udvarral egyĂŒtt. A fƑvĂĄrost dĂ©lre költöztettĂ©k, ami a DĂ©li Szung (NĂĄn SĂČng 捗漋 1127–1279) kezdetĂ©t jelezte. DĂ huĂŹ szintĂ©n dĂ©lre költözött, Ă©s folytatta a tanĂ­tĂĄst szerzetesek Ă©s vilĂĄgiak szĂĄmĂĄra egyarĂĄnt. Ekkor kezdte el Ă©les kritikĂĄit a CĂĄodĂČng (japĂĄnul: Sƍtƍ) iskola ellen, „a nĂ©ma megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs eretnek csanjĂĄnak” (mĂČzhĂ o xiĂ©chĂĄn 默照é‚ȘçŠȘ) gĂșnyolva azt.

DĂ huĂŹ Ă©les kirohanĂĄsai a CĂĄodĂČng (Sƍtƍ) iskola ellen ShĂ©nhuĂŹ 8. szĂĄzadi „evangĂ©liumi” tĂĄmadĂĄsaira emlĂ©keztetnek, amelyeket ShĂ©nxiĂč ellen intĂ©zett HuĂŹnĂ©ng nĂ©pszerƱsĂ­tĂ©se Ă©rdekĂ©ben. Azonban amĂ­g ShĂ©nhuĂŹ egy egĂ©sz iskola (az „Északi” iskola) ellen kĂŒzdött, DĂ huĂŹ csupĂĄn egy meditĂĄciĂłs rendszert tĂĄmadott – az ĂŒlƑmeditĂĄciĂł (zazen) ellen foglalt ĂĄllĂĄst –, Ă©s annak helyĂ©be a gƍng’àn (koan) gyakorlatĂĄt emelte. MindkĂ©t esetben van azonban egy fontos hasonlĂłsĂĄg: a (dokumentĂĄlt) denunciĂĄciĂłik cĂ©lja az volt, hogy felkeltsĂ©k a figyelmet, Ă©s legitimizĂĄljĂĄk sajĂĄt vonalvezetĂ©si ĂĄgukat a nemessĂ©g Ă©s az Ă­rĂĄstudĂł elit tĂĄmogatĂĄsĂĄnak elnyerĂ©sĂ©vel. MƱvelt Ă©s intellektuĂĄlisan kiemelkedƑ szerzeteskĂ©nt DĂ huĂŹ rendkĂ­vĂŒl nĂ©pszerƱvĂ© vĂĄlt az Ă­rĂĄstudĂłk, a nemessĂ©g Ă©s a csan papsĂĄg körĂ©ben egyarĂĄnt. 1137-ben, 49 Ă©ves korĂĄban a DĂ©li Szung (SĂČng) miniszterelnöke, Zhāng JĂčn (ćŒ”æ”š) – aki maga is DĂ huĂŹ tanĂ­tvĂĄnya volt – kinevezte Ƒt a JĂŹng shān (ćŸ‘ć±±) kolostor apĂĄtjĂĄvĂĄ, amely a DĂ©li Szung fƑvĂĄrosĂĄtĂłl, LĂ­n’āntĂłl (a mai HangcsoutĂłl nyugatra) nem messze fekĂŒdt. NĂ©hĂĄny Ă©ven belĂŒl közössĂ©ge kĂ©tezer fƑsre duzzadt, vilĂĄgi követƑi között pedig szĂĄmos magas rangĂș tisztviselƑ akadt. DĂ huĂŹ a DĂ©li Szung-dinasztia elismert buddhista vezetƑjĂ©vĂ© vĂĄlt (Yu 1979: 216).

A nemessĂ©ggel fenntartott kapcsolatai azonban (egy idƑre legalĂĄbbis) a vesztĂ©t okoztĂĄk. Egy magas rangĂș tisztviselƑ, akihez közel ĂĄllt – egy Zhāng JiǔchĂ©ng (ćŒ”äčæˆ) nevƱ követƑje –, kiesett az Ășj miniszterelnök kegyeibƑl, aminek következtĂ©ben DĂ huĂŹ is elveszĂ­tette birodalmi kitĂŒntetĂ©seit Ă©s felszentelĂ©si oklevelĂ©t (visszahelyeztĂ©k vilĂĄgi ĂĄllapotba). 1141-ben (52 Ă©vesen) HĂ©ngzhƍuba (èĄĄć·ž, Hunan tartomĂĄny) menekĂŒlt, ahol elfogtĂĄk, Ă©s JiǔchĂ©ngbe (äčæˆ) szĂĄmƱztĂ©k, ahol 14 Ă©ven ĂĄt a hadsereggel egyĂŒtt kellett Ă©lnie.

Íme a fejezet összefĂŒggƑ magyar fordĂ­tĂĄsa, a kĂ©rt formĂĄtumban: Amikor elĂ©rte a 62 Ă©ves kort, ĂĄthelyeztĂ©k MĂ©ixiĂ nbe (a mai MĂ©izhƍu, Ă©szakkelet-Guǎngdƍng), amely akkoriban hĂ­rhedt volt jĂĄrvĂĄnyairĂłl Ă©s zord idƑjĂĄrĂĄsĂĄrĂłl; itt Ă©lt öt Ă©ven keresztĂŒl. DĂ huĂŹ papjai közĂŒl mintegy ötvenen vesztettĂ©k Ă©letĂŒket egy ottani jĂĄrvĂĄnyban (Ferguson 2000: 441). E nehĂ©z Ă©vek alatt DĂ huĂŹ töretlenĂŒl tanĂ­totta a LĂ­njĂŹ-hagyomĂĄnyt, vonzva mind a nemessĂ©get, mind az egyszerƱ nĂ©pet. VĂ©gĂŒl 1155-ben, 77 Ă©ves korĂĄban kegyelmet kapott, Ă©s visszatĂ©rhetett korĂĄbbi kolostorĂĄba, a JĂŹng shānra, ahol halĂĄlĂĄig, 1163-ig folytatta a tanĂ­tĂĄst. TanĂ­tvĂĄnya, ZhāngjĂčn – aki korĂĄbban kinevezte Ƒt a kolostor apĂĄtjĂĄvĂĄ –, a Szung-kor vilĂĄgias nyelvĂ©n talĂĄlĂłan Ă­gy mĂ©ltatta: „egy hƱsĂ©ges alattvalĂł akarata Ă©s egy könyörĂŒletes bodhiszattvĂĄ szĂ­ve lakozott benne. A hĂ­najĂĄna srāvakĂĄkkal Ă©s pratjĂ©ka-buddhĂĄkkal ellentĂ©tben Ƒ nem fĂĄradt bele a szamszĂĄrĂĄba, Ă©s nem vĂĄgyott önzƑ mĂłdon a nirvĂĄnĂĄra.” DĂ huĂŹ mindössze egyetlen önĂĄllĂł mƱvet Ă­rt, a korĂĄbbi csan mesterek koanjaibĂłl ĂĄllĂł gyƱjtemĂ©nyt, melynek cĂ­me: ZhĂšngfǎyǎn zĂ ng (æ­Łæł•çœŒè—, „Az igaz Dharma-szem kincstĂĄra”). Emellett egy Takuei nevƱ szerzetestĂĄrsĂĄval közösen összeĂĄllĂ­totta a ChĂĄnlĂ­n bǎoxĂčn (çŠȘæž—ćŻ¶èš“, „A csan monasztikus hagyomĂĄny Ă©kkƑ-tanĂ­tĂĄsai”) cĂ­mƱ antolĂłgiĂĄt, amely csan apĂĄtok instrukciĂłit tartalmazza a szerzetesi Ă©let erĂ©nyeirƑl Ă©s ideĂĄljairĂłl. PrĂ©dikĂĄciĂłit Ă©s leveleit tanĂ­tvĂĄnyai harminc tekercsben (juan) gyƱjtöttĂ©k össze DĂ huĂŹ pǔjuĂ© chĂĄnshÄ« yǔlĂč (ć€§æ…§æ™źèŠșçŠȘćž«èȘžéŒ„, T1998) cĂ­mmel.

DÀHUÌ NƐI TANÍTVÁNYAI

DĂ huĂŹ egyik jelentƑs törtĂ©nelmi hozzĂĄjĂĄrulĂĄsa, hogy nemcsak Dharma-ĂĄtadĂĄst biztosĂ­tott MiĂ odĂ o (橙道, mƱködött kb. 1134–1155) apĂĄcĂĄnak, hanem Ƒt jelölte meg elsƑdleges Dharma-örökösekĂ©nt is. BĂĄr MiĂ odĂ o nem az elsƑ nƑi csan mester volt, Ƒ volt az elsƑ, akinek tevĂ©kenysĂ©gĂ©t törtĂ©nelmileg is dokumentĂĄltĂĄk. Úgy tartjĂĄk, egy ideig vilĂĄgi nƑkĂ©nt Ă©lt egy kolostorban. 1134-ben bekövetkezett megvilĂĄgosodĂĄsa nagy hatĂĄssal volt DĂ huĂŹ tanĂ­tĂĄsaira. NĂ©hĂĄny rĂłla szĂłlĂł törtĂ©net jĂłl illusztrĂĄlja a szerzetesek szextƑl valĂł fĂ©lelmĂ©t, Ă©s azt, hogy ez hogyan „hĂĄtrĂĄltatta” Ƒket: egyszer meztelenĂŒl jelent meg a meditĂĄciĂłs csarnokban (chĂĄntĂĄng 穅栂; japĂĄnul: zendo), hogy megmutassa nekik: a zavar nem a lĂĄtvĂĄnyban, hanem az Ƒ sajĂĄt elmĂ©jĂŒkben van. MiĂ odĂ o csĂĄszĂĄri engedĂ©lyt kapott a tanĂ­tĂĄsra Ă©s az apĂĄti tisztsĂ©g betöltĂ©sĂ©re, Ă©s vĂ©gĂŒl formĂĄlisan is felszenteltĂ©k. DĂ huĂŹnak volt egy mĂĄsik apĂĄca tanĂ­tvĂĄnya is, MiĂ ozƍng (ćŠ™çžœ, mĂĄs nĂ©ven WĂșzhĂč ç„Ąè‘—, 1095–1170), akit 1162-ben szenteltek fel, Ă©s szintĂ©n szĂłkimondĂł, ellentmondĂĄsos szemĂ©lyisĂ©g volt. 1163-tĂłl (egy Ă©vvel a felszentelĂ©se utĂĄn) halĂĄlĂĄig a ZÄ«shĂČu (èł‡ćŁœćŻș) apĂĄcakolostor apĂĄtnƑje volt PĂ­ngjiāng körzetben (a mai Szucsou, Jiangsu). Ɛ is megkapta a kitĂŒntetƑ bĂ­bor ruhĂĄt. MindkĂ©t nƑ szerepel a csĂĄszĂĄri jĂłvĂĄhagyĂĄssal kĂ©szĂŒlt vonalvezetĂ©si szövegben, az „Összekapcsolt lĂĄmpĂĄsok tĂĄrsasĂĄgĂĄnak lĂ©nyege” (LiĂĄndēng huĂŹyĂ o èŻç‡ˆæœƒèŠ) cĂ­mƱ mƱben.

DÀHUÌ ZÌNGGǍO (ć€§æ…§ćź—æČ) ÉS A KĀNHUÀ CHÁN (看話çŠȘ)

A Tang-dinasztia Ă©s a Szung-dinasztia csan (chĂĄn çŠȘ) irĂĄnyzatai jellegĂŒkben jelentƑsen elkĂŒlönĂŒltek egymĂĄstĂłl. TanĂ­tĂĄsbeli szempontbĂłl a Tang-kori csan az „eredendƑ megvilĂĄgosodĂĄst” (běnjuĂ©mĂ©n æœŹèŠș門) hirdette, mĂ­g a Szung-kori csan a „tapasztalati [szerzett] megvilĂĄgosodĂĄst” (shǐjuĂ©mĂ©n 構èŠș門) tanĂ­totta. A „tapasztalati megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs” keresƑje, miutĂĄn feleszmĂ©lt a tĂ©velygĂ©sbƑl, tovĂĄbblĂ©pett, hogy kimƱvelje vagy közvetlenĂŒl megtapasztalja az Ă©bredĂ©st. Ez a gyakorlat kizĂĄrĂłlag a Szung-kori csanra volt jellemzƑ, Ă©s „szĂł-szemlĂ©lƑ meditĂĄciĂłkĂ©nt” (kānhuĂ  chĂĄn 看話çŠȘ) ismerik, amelyet DĂ huĂŹ Zƍnggǎo tett hĂ­ressĂ©. DĂ huĂŹ rendkĂ­vĂŒl erƑs hatĂĄst gyakorolt a koreai szon (Seon) buddhizmusra Jinul (矄蚄, ZhÄ«nĂš, 1158–1210) munkĂĄssĂĄgĂĄn keresztĂŒl, a japĂĄn zenre pedig Dƍgen (道慃, DĂ oyuĂĄn, 1200–1253) rĂ©vĂ©n. DĂ huĂŹ gyakran hasznĂĄlta a hĂ­res „ZhĂ ozhƍu kutyĂĄja” koant, amely a WĂșmĂ©nguān (Nincs Kapu) gyƱjtemĂ©ny legelsƑ esete.

    è¶™ć·žć’Œć°šă€ć› ćƒ§ć•ă€
    ç‹—ć­é‚„æœ‰äœ›æ€§äčŸç„Ąă€‚
    ć·žäș‘、焥。

    Csao-csou mestert egy szerzetes megkérdezte:
    „Van-e a kutyĂĄnak Buddha-termĂ©szete, vagy nincs?”
    Csao-csou Ă­gy felelt: „Nincs” (MĂș).

    YÄ« ZhĂ ozhƍu gǒuzi äž€è¶™ć·žç‹—ć­; WĂșmĂ©nguān #1

„ZhĂ ozhƍu kutyĂĄja” kivĂĄlĂł pĂ©lda arra, hogy a koanok csak – vagy leginkĂĄbb – a kĂ­nai vagy kĂ­nai alapĂș nyelveken (Kelet-Ázsia nyelvein) mƱködnek. Ezt a koant legcĂ©lszerƱbb az eredeti kĂ­nai vĂĄltozatĂĄban hasznĂĄlni, ha valĂłdi csan megvilĂĄgosodĂĄst szeretnĂ©nk tapasztalni. A huĂ tĂłu (a szĂł fĂłkusza) a wĂș (無) szĂłban rejlik, amelyet nem szabad lefordĂ­tani. MiutĂĄn megĂ©rtettĂŒk a koant, egyszerƱen hagyjuk, hogy a wĂș leĂŒlepedjen a tudatunkban. Az elme magĂĄtĂłl megnyĂ­lik elƑtte. A koan cĂ©lja, hogy feltörje a gondolati konstrukciĂłk merev formĂĄit vagy a nyelv okozta mentĂĄlis kerĂ©kvĂĄgĂĄsokat. Az ok vilĂĄgos: a kĂ­nai nyelv piktografikus termĂ©szete könnyen tĂĄrgyiasĂ­t (reifikĂĄl) egy elkĂ©pzelĂ©st, Ă©s – legalĂĄbbis a premodern idƑkben – nem volt annyira alkalmas az absztrakt gondolkodĂĄsra, mint az ĂĄbĂ©cĂ©-alapĂș nyelvek (pĂ©ldĂĄul a szanszkrit vagy a pĂĄli). ÉrthetƑ mĂłdon a premodern kĂ­nai civilizĂĄciĂł inkĂĄbb gyakorlati filozĂłfiai Ă©s tudomĂĄnyos eszmĂ©irƑl volt ismert, semmint absztrakt filozĂłfiĂĄjĂĄrĂłl vagy vallĂĄsairĂłl.

DĂ huĂŹ koanokat hasznĂĄlĂł oktatĂĄsi stĂ­lusa mĂ©lyen befolyĂĄsolta az összes utĂĄna következƑ LĂ­njĂŹ (japĂĄnul: Rinzai) tanĂ­tĂłt KĂ­nĂĄban Ă©s JapĂĄnban egyarĂĄnt. BĂĄr a koan-gyakorlatot tartotta a csan megvilĂĄgosodĂĄshoz vezetƑ leghatĂ©konyabb Ăștnak, sajĂĄt korĂĄban lĂĄtta, hogy ez a gyakorlat felszĂ­nes irodalmi tanulmĂĄnnyĂĄ vĂĄlik. Jellegzetes csan stĂ­lusban elrendelte sajĂĄt tanĂ­tĂłja mesteri koan-gyƱjtemĂ©nyĂ©nek, a „KĂ©k Szikla GyƱjtemĂ©nynek” (BĂŹyĂĄn lĂč çą§ć·–éŒ„; japĂĄnul: Hekiganroku) a betiltĂĄsĂĄt: elĂ©gette az összes pĂ©ldĂĄnyt Ă©s a fatĂĄblĂĄs nyomĂłformĂĄkat is, ezzel gyakorlatilag kĂ©t Ă©vszĂĄzadra kivonta a forgalombĂłl a tisztelt szöveget.

Ha DĂ huĂŹ eddigi Ă©letĂștjĂĄt nĂ©zzĂŒk, nem nehĂ©z belĂĄtni, hogy könyvĂ©getĂ©se tĂĄvolrĂłl sem volt nagylelkƱ cselekedet. KönyvĂ©getĂ©s korĂĄbban is fordult mĂĄr elƑ KĂ­nĂĄban – a leghĂ­rhedtebb az elsƑ csĂĄszĂĄr, QĂ­n Shǐ HuĂĄng (i. e. 259–210) parancsĂĄra törtĂ©nt, aki autokratikus birodalmi uralmĂĄnak bĂ­rĂĄlĂłit elnĂ©mĂ­tandĂł elĂ©gette könyveiket (kĂŒlönösen a konfuciĂĄnus tudĂłsokĂ©t), Ƒket magukat pedig szĂĄmƱzte vagy kivĂ©geztette. DĂ huĂŹ Ășgy talĂĄlta, hogy tanĂ­tĂłja mƱve, a KĂ©k Szikla GyƱjtemĂ©ny csak eltereli a figyelmet azon terveirƑl, hogy a csan vilĂĄgĂĄt sajĂĄt maga körĂ© központosĂ­tsa. Terveiben pedig rendkĂ­vĂŒl sikeresnek bizonyult.

InnovatĂ­v tanĂ­tĂĄsa „szĂł-szemlĂ©lƑ meditĂĄció” (kānhuĂ  chĂĄn 看話çŠȘ) nĂ©ven vĂĄlt ismerttĂ©. Noha hitt abban, hogy a koanok jelentik a legjobb utat a csan megvilĂĄgosodĂĄshoz, a taoizmus Ă©s a konfucianizmus mĂ©ly hatĂĄsa alatt kijelentette: „Ha valaki valĂłdi ĂĄttörĂ©st Ă©r el, akkor (rĂĄjön, hogy) egy konfuciĂĄnus semmiben sem kĂŒlönbözik egy buddhistĂĄtĂłl, Ă©s egy buddhista semmiben sem kĂŒlönbözik egy konfuciĂĄnustĂłl; egy szerzetes semmiben sem kĂŒlönbözik egy vilĂĄgitĂłl, Ă©s egy vilĂĄgi semmiben sem kĂŒlönbözik egy szerzetestƑl; egy ĂĄtlagember semmiben sem kĂŒlönbözik egy bölcstƑl, Ă©s egy bölcs semmiben sem kĂŒlönbözik egy ĂĄtlagembertƑl.” Ez vagy azt jelentette, hogy valĂłban hitt az egyetemessĂ©gben, vagy pedig azt, hogy mĂ©g KĂ­na legnagyobb bölcsei fölĂ© is odahelyezte magĂĄt, ami megalomĂĄn hajlamokra vagy a sajĂĄt nagyszerƱsĂ©gĂ©vel kapcsolatos tĂ©vhitre utalna.

„A LÁMPÁS ÁTADÁSA” (悳燈錄, ChuĂĄndēng lĂč)

A 11. szĂĄzadra a korĂĄbbi mesterek koanjait mĂĄr buzgĂłn gyƱjtöttĂ©k, sƑt egyes tanĂ­tĂłk sajĂĄt koanok kitalĂĄlĂĄsĂĄba is kezdtek. A korĂĄbbi koanokbĂłl összeĂĄllĂ­tott antolĂłgiĂĄk leghĂ­resebb pĂ©ldĂĄja a ChuĂĄndēng lĂč (悳燈錄, „A lĂĄmpĂĄs ĂĄtadĂĄsa”), amelyet DĂ oyuĂĄn (道掟) ĂĄllĂ­tott össze 1004-ben. Ez a monumentĂĄlis mƱ több mint ezer koant tartalmaz, felölelve a törtĂ©neteket az Ƒsi pĂĄtriĂĄrkĂĄktĂłl Ă©s mesterektƑl kezdve egĂ©szen a 10. szĂĄzadi Fǎyǎn-iskola tanĂ­tvĂĄnyaiig.

A koan-antolĂłgiĂĄk mĂĄsodik tĂ­pusĂĄra – ahol a mester mĂĄr sajĂĄt szerkesztĂ©sƱ anyagot is közread – korai pĂ©ldakĂ©nt szolgĂĄlnak a LĂ­njĂŹ-mester, FĂ©nyĂĄng ShĂ nzhāo (æ±Ÿé™œć–„æ˜­, 947–1024) feljegyzett mondĂĄsai. MƱve 300 koant tartalmaz, melyeket hĂĄrom kĂŒlön gyƱjtemĂ©nybe rendezett: Az elsƑ gyƱjtemĂ©ny rĂ©gi koanokbĂłl ĂĄll, amelyek mindegyikĂ©hez FĂ©nyĂĄng egy-egy verset Ă­rt, költƑi nyelven foglalva össze a koan ĂĄltalĂĄnos jelentĂ©sĂ©t. A mĂĄsodik gyƱjtemĂ©ny az Ƒ sajĂĄt koanjait tartalmazza, amelyekhez sajĂĄt vĂĄlaszait is mellĂ©kelte. A harmadik gyƱjtemĂ©ny rĂ©gi koanokat tartalmaz, kiegĂ©szĂ­tve az Ƒ alternatĂ­v vĂĄlaszaival. Ez a hĂĄrom gyƱjtemĂ©ny vĂĄlt az alapjĂĄvĂĄ Ă©s mintĂĄjĂĄvĂĄ a kĂ©sƑbbi korok koan-alapĂș gyakorlatainak Ă©s szellemi kĂ©pzĂ©sĂ©nek.

A koan-antolĂłgiĂĄk felemelkedĂ©se mögött elsƑsorban egy belsƑ vĂĄlsĂĄg ĂĄllt. A buddhizmus 845-ös ĂŒldöztetĂ©se utĂĄn a nagy csan mesterek tĂĄvoztak, anĂ©lkĂŒl, hogy Ășj generĂĄciĂł vette volna ĂĄt a helyĂŒket. Ötven Ă©ven belĂŒl a dicsƑ csan mesterek egĂ©sz sora hunyt el egymĂĄs utĂĄn: GuÄ«shān (853), HuĂĄngbĂČ (855), DĂ©shān (865), LĂ­njĂŹ (866), Dƍngshān (869), Yǎngshān (891) Ă©s CĂĄoshān (900). A csan buddhizmus – ellentĂ©tben az Ă­rĂĄsmƱveken alapulĂł TiāntĂĄi vagy HuĂĄyĂĄn iskolĂĄkkal, vagy a hitre Ă©pĂŒlƑ Tiszta Föld irĂĄnyzattal – mindig is a szemĂ©lyes vallĂĄsi tapasztalatot hangsĂșlyozta, azaz a csan megvilĂĄgosodĂĄst Ă©s annak Ă©lƑ mesterek ĂĄltali hitelesĂ­tĂ©sĂ©t. Egy olyan buddhizmusban, amely erƑsen konfucianizĂĄlt Ă©s finoman taoizĂĄlt volt, mĂ©g a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄst is mĂ©rni Ă©s hitelesĂ­teni kellett. A csan mester döntötte el, mikor ĂĄll kĂ©szen a tanĂ­tvĂĄny a kĂ©pzĂ©sre, milyen tĂ­pusĂș gyakorlatra van szĂŒksĂ©ge, Ă©s azt is, hogy mikor Ă©rte el az Ă©bredĂ©st. DĂ huĂŹtĂłl kezdve a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs fƑ eszközĂ©vĂ© a gƍng’àn (koan) vĂĄlt. Suzuki Ă©s a romantikus csan-Ă©rtelmezĂ©s napjai azonban lejĂĄrtak: a mai kutatĂłk mĂĄr tudjĂĄk, hogy a koan nem mindig csupĂĄn egy â€žĂŒgyes eszköz” (upāya) volt. A kĂ­nai tudĂłs, Yu, DĂ huĂŹrĂłl Ă­rva a következƑket jegyzi meg:

    „Azt remĂ©ltĂ©k, hogy a korĂĄbbi koanok összegyƱjtĂ©se Ă©s az ezeken vĂ©gzett koncentrĂĄlt meditĂĄciĂł rĂ©vĂ©n az eredeti megvilĂĄgosodĂĄsi Ă©lmĂ©ny Ășjra ĂĄtĂ©lhetƑvĂ© vĂĄlik. Suzuki Ășgy vĂ©lte, hogy ez a fejlemĂ©ny elengedhetetlen volt a csan tĂșlĂ©lĂ©sĂ©hez a Tang-kor karizmatikus vezetƑinek tĂĄvozĂĄsa utĂĄn. Azonban, mint lĂĄtni fogjuk, a koan-gyakorlatra helyezett hangsĂșly valĂłjĂĄban kĂ©tĂ©lƱ fegyver volt. Új Ă©letet lehelhetett a csanba, de ha helytelenĂŒl kezeltĂ©k, akĂĄr ki is olthatta annak valĂłdi Ă©leterejĂ©t.”

    Yu, "Ta-hui Tsung-kao and Kung-an Ch‘an," 1979: 219

HOGYAN GYAKOROLJUK A HUÀTÓUT (話頭)?

ÁltalĂĄnossĂĄgban a koan egy tudatĂĄllapot-mĂłdosĂ­tĂł pĂĄrbeszĂ©dre vagy esemĂ©nyre utal, amely egy csan mester Ă©s tanĂ­tvĂĄnya között zajlott le. Ahogy Garma C.C. Chang megjegyzi: „Röviden, a koan egy zen törtĂ©netet, egy zen helyzetet vagy egy zen problĂ©mĂĄt jelent.” A Szung-kori csan szerzetesek azonban ritkĂĄn hasznĂĄltĂĄk a gƍng’àn (ć…ŹæĄˆ) kifejezĂ©st; ehelyett gyakrabban Ă©ltek a huĂ tĂłu (話頭) elnevezĂ©ssel, a koanon vĂ©gzett meditĂĄciĂłt pedig cān huĂ tĂłu-nak (ć‚è©±é ­) vagy kān huĂ tĂłu-nak (看話頭) neveztĂ©k. SzĂł szerinti Ă©rtelemben a huĂ  jelentĂ©se „beszĂ©d, megjegyzĂ©s, mondat”, a tĂłu pedig valaminek vagy az elejĂ©t, vagy a vĂ©gĂ©t jelenti (mivel a kĂ­nai mondat olvashatĂł balrĂłl jobbra, vagy akĂĄr visszafelĂ© is). Mivel a tĂłu szĂł szerint „fejet” is jelent, felfoghatjuk Ășgy is, mint a mondat azon rĂ©szĂ©t, amely felĂ© „tartanunk” (head for) kell, vagyis amit meg kell ragadnunk: ez tulajdonkĂ©ppen a mondat „fogantyĂșja”, a kulcsszava. Így összekapcsolva a huĂ tĂłu jelentĂ©se: „egy mondat feje (vagy fogantyĂșja)”, technikaibb Ă©rtelemben pedig ez az a hĂ­vĂłszĂł vagy kulcsfogalom, amely magĂĄban hordozza a mondat lĂ©nyegĂ©t.

Amikor megragadod a huĂ tĂłut, kezedbe veszed a mondat jelentĂ©sĂ©nek fogantyĂșjĂĄt. MegtalĂĄltad az ujjat, amely a holdra mutat: most mĂĄr csak közvetlenĂŒl a holdra kell nĂ©zned. TöbbĂ© nincs szĂŒksĂ©ged sem az ujjra, sem a mutatĂĄsra. MĂ­g a koan a teljes helyzetre vagy esemĂ©nyre utal, a huatou kifejezetten a helyzet kritikus szavĂĄt vagy kulcspontjĂĄt jelenti. A koan Ă©s a huatou közötti kĂŒlönbsĂ©get jĂłl illusztrĂĄlja DĂ huĂŹ kedvenc esete, a „ZhĂ ozhƍu kutyĂĄja”. Egy szerzetes megkĂ©rdezte ZhĂ ozhƍu mestert: „Van-e a kutyĂĄnak Buddha-termĂ©szete?” ZhĂ ozhƍu Ă­gy felelt: „WĂș!” (lĂĄsd fentebb). A teljes pĂĄrbeszĂ©det koannak nevezzĂŒk, de a csan gyakorlĂłnak nem szabad sem a kĂ©rdĂ©sen, sem a vĂĄlaszon gondolkodnia. Ehelyett egyhegyƱ figyelemmel a kulcsszĂłra, a „WĂș”-ra kell koncentrĂĄlnia – ez az Ƒ huatou-ja.

A huatĂłu tekinthetƑ egyfajta „vĂĄrandĂłs gondolatnak” is, amely megfelelƑ vizsgĂĄlatnak alĂĄvetve feltĂĄrja az emberi elme valĂłdi termĂ©szetĂ©t. Nan Huai-chin Ă­gy magyarĂĄzza ezt:

    „A kortĂĄrs sanghaji nyelvjĂĄrĂĄsban, ha meg akarsz kĂ©rdezni valakitƑl: »Mi a bajod?« vagy »Mit akarsz?«, azt mondod: »Mi a te huatĂłud?«. Amikor egy gondolat formĂĄlĂłdni kezd, az egy mondat kezdete. De mi a forrĂĄsa Ă©s a hollĂ©te egy ilyen szĂŒletƑfĂ©lben lĂ©vƑ gondolatnak? Ez valĂłban egy hatalmas kĂ©rdĂ©s. MegtalĂĄlni ennek a gondolatnak a forrĂĄsĂĄt – ez a huatĂłu. Ez egy kifejezĂ©s kezdete, egy problĂ©ma. A huatĂłu-val valĂł munka mĂłdszere nem mĂĄs, mint elidƑzni e kifejezĂ©s eredetĂ©nĂ©l Ă©s gyökerĂ©nĂ©l. Ez az »elidƑzĂ©s« magĂĄban foglalja a tanulmĂĄnyozĂĄs, a talĂĄlgatĂĄs, a megtapasztalĂĄs, a megfigyelĂ©s, a kontemplĂĄciĂł Ă©s a huatĂłu feletti csendes töprengĂ©s egyĂŒttes erƑfeszĂ­tĂ©sĂ©t.”

    NAN Huai-chin, ChĂĄn yĂș dĂ o gĂ i lĂčn çŠȘ與道抂論, 1968: 77 f

A tĂĄvolbĂłl szemlĂ©lve mindez misztikusnak tƱnhet, de egy ilyen gyakorlat – amint azt Buswell megjegyzi – nem illeszkedik zökkenƑmentesen a koncentrĂĄciĂłt cĂ©lzĂł meditĂĄciĂłs rendszerekbe:

    A hwadu [a huatou koreai elnevezĂ©se] cĂ©lja nem egyfajta szamĂĄdhi ĂĄllapot garantĂĄlĂĄsa, hanem egy olyan ĂĄllapotĂ©, amelyben a szamĂĄdhi nyugalma Ă©s a pradznyĂĄ (bölcsessĂ©g) Ă©lessĂ©ge egyszerre marad fenn
 Ha megprĂłbĂĄlnĂĄnk elhelyezni a kanhwa gyakorlat ĂĄltal lĂ©trehozott tudatĂĄllapotot a Thēravāda iskola buddhista meditĂĄciĂłs fokozataiban, Ășgy vĂ©lem, az leginkĂĄbb a »szomszĂ©dsĂĄgi koncentrĂĄciĂłhoz« (upacāra-samĂĄdhi) hasonlĂ­tana, amely tĂ­z specifikus tĂ­pusĂș diskurzĂ­v kontemplĂĄciĂłt kĂ­sĂ©r.”

    Buswell, The Korean Monastic Experience, 1992: 159

Azonban a Buswell ĂĄltal emlĂ­tett koan-gyakorlat kevĂ©sbĂ© tƱnik problematikusnak, ha egyfajta fogalomalkotĂĄs-ellenes stratĂ©giakĂ©nt tekintĂŒnk rĂĄ, amely lĂ©tfontossĂĄgĂș szerepet jĂĄtszott mĂĄr a korai buddhista meditĂĄciĂłban is. A Vitakka-santhĂĄna-szutta (M 20) a fogalomalkotĂĄs (pĂ©ldĂĄul az aggodalmaskodĂĄs) elleni mentĂĄlis stratĂ©giĂĄt a „gondolati redukció” ĂștjĂĄn tanĂ­tja. Itt a megzavart meditĂĄlĂł megĂĄll, Ă©s olyannak vizsgĂĄlja meg a zavarĂł gondolatot, amilyen az valĂłjĂĄban:

    „Bhikkhuk, ha a szerzetesnĂ©l – miközben nem figyel ezekre a gondolatokra Ă©s figyelmen kĂ­vĂŒl hagyja Ƒket – mĂ©gis vĂĄgyhoz, gyƱlölethez vagy tĂ©velygĂ©shez kapcsolĂłdĂł ĂĄrtalmas, ĂŒdvƑtlen gondolatok tĂĄmadnak, akkor a gondolatformĂĄciĂłk elcsendesĂ­tĂ©sĂ©re kell törekednie [azĂĄltal, hogy felismeri azok okait]. Ekkor az ĂĄrtalmas, ĂŒdvƑtlen gondolatok megszƱnnek Ă©s eltƱnnek. MegszƱnĂ©sĂŒk ĂĄltal az elme belĂŒl szilĂĄrddĂĄ vĂĄlik, elnyugszik, egysĂ©gessĂ© Ă©s koncentrĂĄttĂĄ lesz.”

    A GYALOGLÓ HASONLATA

    „Bhikkhuk, mint ahogy egy ember, aki nem lĂĄtja okĂĄt a gyors jĂĄrĂĄsnak, lassabban megy; nem lĂĄtva okĂĄt a lassĂș jĂĄrĂĄsnak, megĂĄll; nem lĂĄtva okĂĄt a megĂĄllĂĄsnak, leĂŒl; nem lĂĄtva okĂĄt a leĂŒlĂ©snek, lefekszik – Ă­gy vĂĄltva fel egy kĂ©nyelmetlen testhelyzetet egy kĂ©nyelmesebbre –, Ă©ppen Ășgy kell a szerzetesnek megszabadulnia az ĂĄrtalmas, ĂŒdvƑtlen gondolatoktĂłl a gondolatformĂĄciĂłk elcsendesĂ­tĂ©se ĂĄltal. Ekkor az ĂĄrtalmas, ĂŒdvƑtlen gondolatok megszƱnnek Ă©s eltƱnnek. MegszƱnĂ©sĂŒk ĂĄltal az elme belĂŒl szilĂĄrddĂĄ vĂĄlik, elnyugszik, egysĂ©gessĂ© Ă©s koncentrĂĄttĂĄ lesz.”

    A kĂ­nai kĂĄnonban (Taishƍ ShinshĆ« Daizƍkyƍ) a Maddhima-āgama (Zhƍng ĀhĂĄnjÄ«ng äž­é˜żć«ç¶“) gyƱjtemĂ©nyĂ©ben szerepel, a 101. szĂĄmĂș szĂștra alatt. CĂ­me kĂ­naiul: ă€ŠćąžäžŠćżƒç¶“ă€‹ (ZēngshĂ ng xÄ«n jÄ«ng – A magasabb rendƱ tudat szĂștrĂĄja) T01n0026, 588b20-tĂłl kezdƑdƑen.

BĂĄr DĂ huĂŹ mĂłdszere (a huĂ tĂłu) Ă©vszĂĄzadokkal kĂ©sƑbb, a 12. szĂĄzadban vĂĄlt uralkodĂłvĂĄ, ez a szĂștra bizonyĂ­tja, hogy a „gondolatformĂĄciĂłk elcsendesĂ­tĂ©se” (vitakka-sankhara-santhana) mĂĄr a legkorĂĄbbi buddhizmusban is egyfajta mechanikai folyamat volt. A hasonlat lĂ©nyege, hogy ne „erƑvel” akard elnyomni a rossz gondolatot, hanem lĂĄss rĂĄ annak feleslegessĂ©gĂ©re. Amint rĂĄjössz, hogy a gyƱlölet vagy a vĂĄgy olyan, mintha feleslegesen futnĂĄl a tƱzƑ napon, az elme termĂ©szetes igĂ©nye lesz a lassĂ­tĂĄs, a megĂĄllĂĄs Ă©s a pihenĂ©s.

A kĂ­nai fordĂ­tĂĄs (melyet Gautama SzanghadĂ©va kĂ©szĂ­tett a 4. szĂĄzad vĂ©gĂ©n) nĂ©mileg tömörebb, de a lĂ©nyege ugyanaz. Íme a konkrĂ©t rĂ©szlet, amely a fokozatos megnyugvĂĄst Ă­rja le:

    çŒ¶ćŠ‚æœ‰äșșæ„”é€Ÿè€ŒèĄŒïŒŒćœŒäŸżäœœæ˜Żćż”ïŒšă€Žæˆ‘äœ•æ•…æ„”é€ŸèĄŒïŒŸæˆ‘ćŻ§ćŻéČèĄŒă€‚ă€ćœŒćłäŸżéČèĄŒă€‚
    ćœŒćŸ©äœœæ˜Żćż”ïŒšă€Žæˆ‘äœ•æ•…éČèĄŒïŒŸæˆ‘ćŻ§ćŻäœă€‚ă€ćœŒćłäŸżäœă€‚
    ćœŒćŸ©äœœæ˜Żćż”ïŒšă€Žæˆ‘äœ•æ•…äœïŒŸæˆ‘ćŻ§ćŻćă€‚ă€ćœŒćłäŸżćă€‚
    ćœŒćŸ©äœœæ˜Żćż”ïŒšă€Žæˆ‘äœ•æ•…ćïŒŸæˆ‘ćŻ§ćŻè‡„ă€‚ă€ćœŒćłäŸżè‡„ă€‚
    ćŠ‚æ˜ŻïŒŒä»„æ­€éș€èș«ćšć„€ïŒŒæ˜“仄现èș«ćšć„€ă€‚

    Mint az az ember, aki igen gyorsan megy, majd Ă­gy gondolkodik: „MiĂ©rt megyek ilyen gyorsan? InkĂĄbb lassan megyek.” És lassabban megy.
    Majd Ă­gy gondolkodik: „MiĂ©rt megyek lassan? InkĂĄbb megĂĄllok.” És megĂĄll.
    Majd Ă­gy gondolkodik: „MiĂ©rt ĂĄllok? InkĂĄbb leĂŒlök.” És leĂŒl.
    Majd Ă­gy gondolkodik: „MiĂ©rt ĂŒlök? InkĂĄbb lefekszem.” És lefekszik.
    Így vĂĄltja fel a durva [fĂĄrasztĂł] testhelyzetet egy finomabb [könnyebb] testhelyzettel.

A Dharma-szekciĂł elmĂ©letben magyarĂĄzza a mĂłdszert, mĂ­g a hasonlat-rĂ©sz szemlĂ©letesebb mĂłdon mutatja be, hogyan engedjĂŒk el a zavart elmĂ©t. Van azonban ebben egy csapda: ezeket a tanĂ­tĂĄsokat önmagukban ĂĄltalĂĄban nehĂ©z elsƑre felfogni. MĂ©g ha intellektuĂĄlisan teljes mĂ©rtĂ©kben ĂĄt is lĂĄtjuk a szöveget, tovĂĄbbra is hĂĄtravan a szemĂ©lyes alkalmazĂĄs Ă©s annak megtapasztalĂĄsa, hogy a gyakorlat valĂłban mƱködik-e szĂĄmunkra. Egy tapasztalt meditĂĄciĂłs tanĂ­tĂł, aki a korai buddhista tanĂ­tĂĄsokon nevelkedett, ĂĄltalĂĄban azt tanĂĄcsolnĂĄ a diĂĄknak, hogy a következƑ folyamatok bĂĄrmelyikĂ©t vĂ©gezze el, hajlandĂłsĂĄga szerint:

  • A folyamat termĂ©szetĂ©nek megfigyelĂ©se: EgyszerƱen vedd Ă©szre a zavarĂł gondolati folyamat termĂ©szetĂ©t: hogyan keletkezik, mikĂ©nt Ă©ri el a csĂșcspontjĂĄt, Ă©s hogyan tƱnik el.
  • A belsƑ kĂ©rdezĂ©s: Egy egyszerƱ trĂŒkk az, ha felteszed magunknak a kĂ©rdĂ©st: „MiĂ©rt gondolkodom Ă­gy?” vagy mĂ©g jobb: „Mi törtĂ©nik itt?”
  • A HuĂ tĂłu-technika alkalmazĂĄsa: AzonosĂ­tsd a zavarĂł gondolat kulcsszavĂĄt (pĂ©ldĂĄul: „aggodalom”), Ă©s vizsgĂĄld ezt a huĂ tĂłu-t: „Mi ez a dolog?” vagy „Mi törtĂ©nik itt?”. (Amint gyakorlatot szerzel ebben, mĂĄr fel sem kell tenned a kĂ©rdĂ©st – a vĂĄlasz magĂĄtĂłl megjelenik a nyugodt megfigyelĂ©s ĂĄltal.)

Mivel ezek nem intellektuĂĄlis kĂ©rdĂ©sek, semmilyen mĂłdon nem prĂłbĂĄlunk vĂĄlaszolni rĂĄjuk: egyszerƱen csak feltesszĂŒk a kĂ©rdĂ©seket olyan gyakran, amilyen gyakran csak szĂŒksĂ©ges, de ami a legfontosabb, maradjunk csendben, hogy a vĂĄlaszok maguktĂłl emelkedhessenek fel. Ilyen egyszerƱ az egĂ©sz, de kĂ©szĂŒljĂŒnk fel arra, hogy a vĂĄlasz, amikor vĂ©gĂŒl megjelenik, meg fog lepni Ă©s el fog csendesĂ­teni bennĂŒnket. Ez a mentĂĄlis szavaink kĂ©tsĂ©gbe vonĂĄsĂĄnak korai buddhista alkalmazĂĄsa. Az alapgondolat az, hogy vonjuk kĂ©tsĂ©gbe magĂĄt a problĂ©mĂĄt, ami gyötör minket. Egy apokrif csan törtĂ©net szerint a mĂĄsodik kĂ­nai pĂĄtriĂĄrka, HuĂŹkě (æ…§ćŻ) megkereste BĂłdhidharmĂĄt, hogy a tanĂ­tvĂĄnya lehessen, de BĂłdhidharma elutasĂ­totta Ƒt, visszavĂĄgva: „Majd ha a hĂł vörössĂ© vĂĄlik!” HuĂŹkě egy ideig a hĂłban ĂĄllt töprengve, majd levĂĄgta a sajĂĄt karjĂĄt, Ă©s BĂłdhidharmĂĄnak nyĂșjtotta; a hĂł a lĂĄbainĂĄl vöröslött – HuĂŹkě vĂ©rĂ©tƑl! MiutĂĄn vĂ©gĂŒl elfogadta Ƒt tanĂ­tvĂĄnyakĂ©nt, HuĂŹkě Ă­gy kĂ©rdezte mesterĂ©t:

    ćŻæ›°ïŒšæˆ‘ćżƒæœȘćŻ§ïŒŒäčžćž«èˆ‡ćź‰ă€‚
    ćž«æ›°ïŒšć°‡ćżƒäŸ†ïŒŒèˆ‡æ±ćź‰ă€‚
    ćŻè‰Żäč…æ›°ïŒšèŠ“ćżƒäș†äžćŻćŸ—。
    ćž«æ›°ïŒšæˆ‘èˆ‡æ±ćź‰ćżƒç«Ÿă€‚

    HuĂŹkě: „Lelkem nem talĂĄl nyugalmat. KĂ©rlek, Mester, nyugtasd meg a lelkem!”
    BĂłdhidharma: „Hozd ide a lelkedet, Ă©s Ă©n megnyugtatom.”
    HuĂŹkě: „Keresem a lelkem, de egyszerƱen nem lelem sehol.”
    Bódhidharma: „Látod, már meg is nyugtattam neked!”

    (悳燈錄 ChuĂĄndēng lĂč, T51.219b)

Senki, mĂ©g egy elkötelezett csan gyakorlĂł sem tekintenĂ© ezt a beszĂĄmolĂłt többnek egy törtĂ©netnĂ©l, mĂ©g ha tanulsĂĄgos is. EgyszerƱen nem valĂłszĂ­nƱ, hogy odaadnĂĄnk a karunkat vagy a lĂĄbunkat egy problĂ©ma megoldĂĄsĂĄĂ©rt. SƑt, mĂ©g ha elĂ©g kĂ©tsĂ©gbeesettek lennĂ©nk is ahhoz, hogy megvĂĄljunk egy testrĂ©szĂŒnktƑl, BĂłdhidharma vĂĄlasza valĂłszĂ­nƱleg soha nem oldanĂĄ meg a mi problĂ©mĂĄnkat – hiszen mi nem HuĂŹkě vagyunk! A törtĂ©net maga a koan; keresd meg benne a huatou-t (a lĂ©nyeget). LĂĄsd meg közvetlenĂŒl a sajĂĄt elmĂ©dben. Ne gondolkodj, ne keress. A vĂĄlasz meg fog Ă©rkezni. Olyan elemi erƑvel ĂŒt majd meg, Ă©s mĂ©gis olyan kristĂĄlytisztĂĄn ĂĄll majd elƑtted, hogy nem lesz többĂ© szĂŒksĂ©g kĂ©rdezĂ©sre, aggĂłdĂĄsra vagy kĂ©telkedĂ©sre. Legközelebb, amikor problĂ©mĂĄd adĂłdik, alkalmazd ezt rĂĄ.

HOLT SZÓ (æ­»ć­—, sǐzĂŹ) ÉS ÉLƐ SZÓ (æŽ»ć­—, huĂłzĂŹ)

A csan egyik legjellegzetesebb Ă©rtelmezĂ©si eszköze a „holt szó” (sǐzĂŹ) Ă©s az „élƑ szó” (huĂłzĂŹ) kettƑssĂ©ge volt. Ezeket a kifejezĂ©seket eredetileg DĂČngshān ShǒuchĆ«nak (æŽžć±±ćźˆćˆ, meghalt 900-ban), YĂșnmĂ©n WĂ©nyǎn tanĂ­tvĂĄnyĂĄnak tulajdonĂ­tjĂĄk. KĂ©sƑbb DĂ huĂŹ is hasznĂĄlta Ƒket, tƑle pedig a koreai szerzetes, Chinul (ZhÄ«nĂš 矄蚄, 1158–1210) Ă©s a kĂ©sƑbbi koreai hagyomĂĄny is ĂĄtvette e terminolĂłgiĂĄt. Az „élƑ szó” nem enged teret a megtĂ©vesztett elme ĂĄltal szƑtt fogalomalkotĂĄsnak. Ahogy DĂ huĂŹ leĂ­rta: „Ez az egyetlen szĂł az a fegyver, amely szĂ©tzĂșzza a helytelen tudĂĄs Ă©s a hibĂĄs fogalomalkotĂĄs minden tĂ­pusĂĄt.” A csan tanĂ­tĂłk Ă©rtelmezĂ©se szerint minden elmĂ©leti leĂ­rĂĄs – legyen az a csanrĂłl vagy bĂĄrmi mĂĄsrĂłl – „holt szĂłnak” minƑsĂŒl, mĂ­g minden olyan tanĂ­tĂĄs, amely nem magyarĂĄzni akar, hanem a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄshoz segĂ­t, „élƑ szó”. A „holt szavakrĂłl” kellemes beszĂ©lgetni, de hamar fĂĄrasztĂłvĂĄ vĂĄlnak, Ă©s nem segĂ­tenek a szellemi mƱvelƑdĂ©sben, sƑt gyakran a megvilĂĄgosodĂĄs akadĂĄlyai. MĂ©g a csan tanĂ­tĂĄsok vagy maguk a koanok is holt szavakkĂĄ vĂĄlnak, ha elmĂ©leti mĂłdon szemlĂ©ljĂŒk Ƒket. DĂ huĂŹ Ă©ppen ezĂ©rt arra figyelmeztette tanĂ­tvĂĄnyait, hogy az Ă©lƑ szĂłt kutassĂĄk, ne pedig a holt szĂłt.

Ez a kĂ©t kifejezĂ©s — a „holt szó” Ă©s az „élƑ szó” — figyelemremĂ©ltĂłan közel ĂĄll az explicit [meghatĂĄrozĂł] (liǎoyĂŹ äș†çŸ©, szanszkrit: nÄ«tĂąrtha) Ă©s az implicit [nem-meghatĂĄrozĂł] (bĂčliǎoyĂŹ 䞍äș†çŸ©, szanszkrit: neyārtha) fogalompĂĄrosĂĄhoz. A korai buddhista hagyomĂĄny meditĂĄciĂłs kĂ©pzĂ©se sorĂĄn a tanĂ­tvĂĄny elƑször elmĂ©leti ĂștmutatĂĄst kap valamilyen megfelelƑ tanĂ­tĂĄsrĂłl (pĂ©ldĂĄul az öt halmazrĂłl) Ă©s a mentĂĄlis akadĂĄlyok termĂ©szetĂ©rƑl. A tĂ©nyleges meditĂĄciĂłs gyakorlatban azonban a tanĂ­tvĂĄnyt gyakran gyengĂ©den, mĂĄskor hirtelen emlĂ©keztetik vagy kĂ©sztetik arra, hogy engedje el a fogalomalkotĂĄst, Ă©s közvetlenĂŒl tapasztalja meg a meditĂĄciĂł tĂĄrgyĂĄt vagy ĂĄllapotĂĄt. Ez utĂłbbi folyamat alig kĂŒlönbözik attĂłl, ahogyan az „élƑ szĂłt” leĂ­rjĂĄk, bĂĄr Ă©szben kell tartanunk, hogy ezeket eltĂ©rƑ meditĂĄciĂłs rendszerekben alkalmazzĂĄk. Van itt azonban egy Madhjamaka-fĂ©le csapda: mĂ©g mindig kettƑssĂ©ggel (dualitĂĄssal) van dolgunk. A holt szĂł nĂ©lkĂŒl nincs Ă©lƑ szĂł. Ez a kettƑ nem nyelvi vagy kognitĂ­v egysĂ©g, hanem csupĂĄn a mi Ă©szlelĂ©sĂŒnk: Ășgymond „be kell hangolnunk” az Ă©rzĂ©kelĂ©sĂŒnket, hogy ĂĄtlĂĄssunk a szavak holtĂĄn, bele az Ă©lƑ szĂłba. Akkor Ă©rtjĂŒk meg közvetlenĂŒl a holt szĂłt, amikor Ășgy lĂĄtjuk azt, mint ami mindennapi Ă©letĂŒnk jelen pillanatĂĄt tĂŒkrözi (termĂ©szetesen ez csak az egyik mĂłdja a magyarĂĄzatnak). ÁltalĂĄnossĂĄgban elmondhatĂł, hogy ez a feladat könnyebb egy bölcs Ă©s tapasztalt tanĂ­tĂł irĂĄnyĂ­tĂĄsĂĄval.

KI ALKALMAS A PÁRBESZÉDRE?

A bölcs tanĂ­tĂł az, aki tudja, mikĂ©nt vĂĄlaszoljon helyesen a kĂ©rdezƑnek, Ă©s mikĂ©nt segĂ­tse Ƒt problĂ©mĂĄja megoldĂĄsĂĄban. A Kathā-vatthu-szutta (A 3.67) a Buddha mĂ©lyrehatĂł tanĂĄcsait örökĂ­ti meg arrĂłl, hogyan Ă­tĂ©ljĂŒnk meg egy embert aszerint, mikĂ©nt bĂĄnik a kĂ©rdezƑvel. A fƑbb pontok összefoglalĂĄsa:

1. A kérdések négy típusa

Amikor vitĂĄba bocsĂĄtkozol valakivel, tudnod kell, hogy az illetƑ alkalmas-e a pĂĄrbeszĂ©dre vagy sem. Akkor alkalmas a beszĂ©lgetĂ©sre, ha:

egy egyértelmƱ kérdésre egyértelmƱ vålaszt ad;
elemzƑ vagy ĂĄrnyalt vĂĄlaszt ad, ha a kĂ©rdĂ©s elemzĂ©st igĂ©nyel;
visszakĂ©rdez, ha visszakĂ©rdezĂ©sre van szĂŒksĂ©g;
félretesz egy kérdést, ha azt félre kell tenni.

2. A diskurzus négy alapelve

Egy személy akkor alkalmas a pårbeszédre, ha:

tartja magåt ahhoz, ami lehetséges, és ami lehetetlen;
tartja magåt az elfogadott feltételezésekhez;
tartja magĂĄt az ismert tanĂ­tĂĄsokhoz;
tartja magát a megfelelƑ eljárásrendhez.

3. A diskurzus hĂĄrmas etikettje

Alkalmas a pårbeszédre az, aki:

12. nem alĂĄzza meg a kĂ©rdezƑt;
13. nem tiporja el Ƒt;
14. nem gĂșnyolja ki [nem neveti ki] Ƒt;
15. nem kapaszkodik bele a kĂ©rdezƑ kisebb hibĂĄiba.

4. Tovåbbi erkölcsi szabålyok

Alkalmas a pårbeszédre az, aki:

12. nem alĂĄzza meg a kĂ©rdezƑt;
13. nem tiporja el Ƒt;
14. nem gĂșnyolja ki [nem neveti ki] Ƒt;
15. nem kapaszkodik bele a kĂ©rdezƑ kisebb hibĂĄiba.

5. FigyeljĂŒnk oda a tanĂ­tĂłra

Figyeld meg a következƑt abban a szemĂ©lyben, akivel beszĂ©lsz: (16) if he does not listen to you, he is not attentive; and
(17) if he listens to you, he is attentive.

A 3.67/1:197-199 = SD 46.11


II. - NORTHERN-SOUTHERN SCHOOLS CONTROVERSY

Shénxiù (神秀) and Huìnéng (慧能)

DISCIPLES OF HÓNGRĚN (弘忍)

An important landmark in Chinese Buddhism is the controversy or polemics arising between the northern and southern schools of pre-classical Chán (8th century). The lesson here is that in the dynamics of early Chán (especially during the Sòng period), history is often secondary to legend, and that truth and doctrine are secondary to rhetoric and propaganda. From the traditional records, as we have them, the controversy arose between two Chán factions—the northern and the southern schools—centering the status of "sudden enlightenment" (the subitist position) and the "gradual enlightenment" (the gradualist position). All this, as we shall see, was the machination of one unscrupulously zealous monk.

The best known account of the controversy is recorded in the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch (Liùzŭ tán jīng 六祖壇經). According to this Chinese text, both Shénxiù 神秀 (606?-706) and Huìnéng (慧能 638-713) were disciples of Hóngrěn 弘忍 (601-674), the fifth Chán patriarch. Hóngrěn, seeking a successor to the title of sixth patriarch, asked his disciples to compose a verse each that would demonstrate their respective levels of enlightenment.

All the other monks expected Shénxiù, the senior disciple, to be the successor. Shénxiù composed a verse which Hóngrěn publicly praised, but told Shénxiù in private that it fell short of the mark. When Huìnéng, then still a lay temple hand, heard about the contest, he instantly knew what to write but, being an illiterate manual worker130 (says the Platform Sūtra), had a temple page inscribe his verse on a wall. Hóngrěn, hearing of this verse, publicly declared that this verse was lacking, but late that night called the layman Huìnéng to his room and "transmitted his Dharma" to him, naming him as his successor as the sixth patriarch, and giving him the robe and bowl of Bodhidharma as tokens. In traditional Chán literature, Shénxiù‘s verse represents the gradualist position while Huìnéng‘s states the subitist position, and Hóngrěn‘s approval of the latter‘s verse is meant to show that the subitist position is the true teaching of the patriarchs.

In traditional Chán documents, the Northern School (Běizōng 北宗) of Shénxiù is represented as teaching "gradual enlightenment." Philosophically, "gradual" here does not necessarily mean taking an extended period of time to awaken, but indicates the dualistic view that differentiates enlightenment from ignorance, or practice from attainment. No matter what length of time one specifies from the beginning of practice to the enlightenment, it is "gradual" only because the two are viewed as separate. According to doctrine of Buddha-nature that was current in China from the 4th century onwards, all sentient beings have the capacity to become Buddhas. Teachings of "sudden enlightenment," which became standard doctrine within Chán after the controversy, held that all beings are inherently endowed with Buddhahood. As such, enlightenment takes literally no time at all, since practice and enlightenment are not separate. According to this view, the Northern School adhered to a position of untenable dualism, and was as such unorthodox.

The real situation was that this unchanly dispute over "sudden" versus "gradual" enlightenment was all machinated by the wily evangelist Shénhuǐ 神會 (688-762) as a struggle for religious orthodoxy and supremacy. It is of little interest to the ordinary Buddhists, suffering in samsara and seeking to get out. No amount of Chán philosophy could help them. Indeed, if the Chán school were ever to survive, it still had to use "gradual" methods for the dense masses. In fact, as Faure has observed, "most of the time, they merely concealed this fact with their ‗sudden‘ terminology" (1986: 117). The point is that Chán would not have survived if not for its words, shouts and disputes.

WHO WAS SHÉNXIÙ? (玉泉神秀 605-706)

Yùquán Shénxiù (玉泉神秀 605-706) was one of the most influential Chán Buddhist masters of his day, a patriarch of the East Mountain Dharma-door (Chin Tung-shan famen): this long name was often given the diminutive appellation "Northern School" by Shénhuì (神會670-762). Shénxiù was Dharma-heir of Hóngrěn. In late 700 the empress Wǔ invited Shénxiù to the capital at Luòyáng to teach Chán Buddhism. For the last five years of his life, Shénxiù travelled between the two capitals of Luòyáng and Cháng‘ān, teaching Buddhism before passing away at his monastery, the Dōngdū tiāngōng sì 東都天宮寺, sitting in meditation, in 706.The reigning emperor Zhōngzōng 中宗 (705-710) granted the posthumous title of Dàtōng chánshī 大通禪師 (Greatly Penetrating Dhyana Master), only the second time in Chinese Buddhism and the first for three hundred years that this imperial honour had been bestowed (McRae, 1986: 55).

The Léngjiā shīzī jì 楞伽師資記 (Records of the Teachers and Disciples of the Lankavatara) states that Shénxiù‘s last words were "Qūqūzhí" 屈曲直 that is, "bent over, curved, straight" (T85.2837.1290b13). The meaning of these words has puzzled many scholars. McRae thinks that they "might refer to some progressive perfection Shen-hsiu felt he had achieved. Or, taking the first two characters as a compound, one could read the statement as ‗the vagaries of the world are now straightened [in the state of nirvāṇa to come]‘" (1986: 54). The renowned Japanese Buddhologist YANAGIDA Seizan notes that qūqūjiāo 屈曲教 is a pan-chiao, or "doctrinal classification," term for an indirect method of teaching by which the Buddha brought his listeners to the ultimate truth in a step-by-step or even roundabout fashion, and as such he interprets the phrase as "the teachings of the expedient means have been made direct."

Although Shénxiù was the legitimate sixth patriarch of Chán Buddhism, the Southern School, at the instigations of Shénhuì, rejected him, and made counter-claims, splitting the Chán School. The Southern School promoted Huìnéng as their sixth patriarch, and this rivalry continued into the following century. Shénxiù saw himself as teaching in the "East Mountain" tradition of Hóngrěn but, on account of the machinations of Shénhuì in early 730‘s, was labeled as a teacher of the "Northern School" in subsequent Chán records.

Shénxiù was highly educated and steeped in Buddhist scripture. He interpreted the scriptures by way of metaphors of "skilful means" (Skt upāya, fāngbiàn 方便) for "mental contemplation mind," advocating the attainment of Buddhahood in all daily activities, here and now. Every act was seen as meditation practice. For example, he saw simple activities, like taking a bath, as a religious act. He taught that soap used to clean away dirt "is actually the ability of discrimination by which one can ferret out the sources of evil within oneself." Cleaning the mouth with toothpicks is "nothing less than the Truth by which one puts an end to false speech." Overt religious activities such as burning of incense were seen as "the unconditioned Dharma, which ‗perfumes‘ the tainted and evil karma of ignorance and cause it to disappear." (McRae 2003: 50). In meditation practice, Shénxiù taught that the student should develop the natural ability of the mind "to illuminate and understand all things" (McRae 2003: 53), and to see the emptiness of all things. He taught that there is a profound stillness in all things. A Northern School text known as the Five Skillful Means states: "In purity there is not a single thing… Peaceful and vast without limit, its untaintedness is the path of awakening [enlightenment]. The mind serene and awakening distinct, the body‘s serenity is the bodhi tree." (McRae 2003: 53).

Even though Shénxiù and the "Northern School" were subsequently attacked as teaching a gradualist approach to enlightenment, the Guānxīn lùn 觀心論 (Treatise on Contemplation of the Mind), a text which is "unquestionably written by him [Shénxiù]" (McRae 1986: 207) clearly states: "It does not take long to witness this (ie, to realize sagehood); awakening [enlightenment] is in the instant. Why worry about your white hair (ie, about your age)?" (id). It was Shénxiù‘s exhortations to constant, unremitting practice that gave Shénhuì the opening to attack the teaching as "gradualist."

In any case, Shénhuì‘s attacks on Shénxiù occurred some thirty years after Shénxiù‘s death. During his lifetime, and especially his relatively brief teaching in the capital cities of the Táng Dynasty, Shénxiù‘s teachings were received with widespread acceptance and reverence. The influence of Shénxiù‘s teachings on subsequent Chán doctrine and practices is, however, still a somewhat open question, especially the Northern School did not survive the political changes and social turmoil in the north. The Southern School, on the initiative of Shénhuì, flogged the dead horse that is the Northern School, and its received history became the dominant ideology for centuries to come.

Wǔ Zétiān (武則天 625-705)

RISE TO GREATNESS

The story of Wǔ Zétiān, the only woman to rule China as an empress, was contemporaneous with that of the sixth patriarch. We will study the Wǔ Zétiān story first as a backdrop to Huìnéng, and also because her story is significant in terms of a strategic study of Buddhist history, and is, in many ways, more complicated than the Huìnéng story. If there were ever a single woman who manipulated Buddhism to her worldly benefit for most of her adult life, and to affect a whole nation to boot, it would be Wǔ Zétiān 武則天 (r 625-705), personal name Wǔzhào 武曌, 135 often referred to as Tiānhòu 天后 "the Heavenly Empress Consort" during the Táng Dynasty and as Wǔhòu 武后 "the Empress Consort Wǔ" in later times. She was the only woman in the history of China to assume the title of Empress Regnant. As de facto ruler of China, first through her husband and her sons (665-690), not unprecedented in Chinese history, she then broke all precedents when she founded her own dynasty in 690, the Zhōu 周 (interrupting the Táng dynasty), and ruled personally as "the Sacred and Divine Empress Regnant" (Shèngshén huángdì 聖神皇帝) and its variations (690-705).

Her rise and reign was harshly criticized by Confucian historians but, after the 1950s, has been viewed under a different light. At the tender age of 13, the beautiful Wǔ Zétiān joined the emperor Tàizōng‘s 太宗 harem. Later, however, she became a nun, but then returned to the world to become a secondary consort of emperor Gāozōng 高宗, around 652. After vicious palace intrigues, she ousted the legitimate empress Wang (王皇 后 Wáng huánghòu), and in late 655, had her brutally murdered, and gained total dominance over the emperor, consolidating her power during the periods when he was too ill to rule. From 660 onwards she built up her power with consummate skill. During the time when Wǔ Zétiān had usurped the throne, apparently some Buddhist clerics saw this as an occasion for consolidating themselves. Antonino Forte, in his monograph on Buddhism during the Wǔ Zhào 武曌136 usurpation of the Táng throne, suggests that the Tantric priests Bodhi, -ruci and Mani,- cintana, tried to curry favour with the empress, by apparently interpolating the Sanskrit manuscript of the Bǎoyǔ jīng 寳雨經 (Rain of Jewels Sutra) to include explicit references to a female world-monarch (cakravarti). When Gāozōng 高宗 (r 650-683) died, he was succeeded by Zhōngzōng 中宗 (r 684, 705-710), but when he showed signs of being independent, empress Wǔ deposed him, and installed his brother, Ruìzōng 睿宗 (r 684-690, 710-712), as nominal emperor, with her as the power behind the throne. In 688, when some Táng princes rebelled against her, they were easily put down. A series of bloody purges followed, where many of the royal family and court officials were killed. For several years, her secret police had a free hand in rooting out all opposition.

By 685, the empress Wǔ had been carrying on an affair with the priest Huáiyì 懷義 (d 695), and during the next few years, Huaiyi would be progressively bestowed with greater and greater honours.139 Shortly after Wǔ Zétiān took the throne, she elevated the status of Buddhism to be above that of Daoism, officially sanctioning the religion by building temples named Dàyún sì 大雲寺 (Great Cloud Temple) in every prefecture of the regions of the two capitals, Luòyáng and Cháng‘ān, and also made dukes of nine senior priests.

WǓ AS MAITREYA (彌勒菩薩)

In 690, Wǔ Zétiān performed a series of ceremonies and rituals, preparing (that is, legitimizing herself in usurping the Dragon Throne, and so becoming the empress of a new dynasty, the Zhōu 周, and to become the only woman ruler in Chinese history. Her rise came at a time when women played an important role in public life, which was probably the result of the semi-foreign origins of many of the great clans that dominated Táng court life. Since the patriarchal Confucians were fervently against a woman being above them, much less as empress, Wǔ Zétiān astutely turned to Buddhism to legitimize her claims to the throne. Under such circumstances, the Buddhist priests were either obliged to assist her, or saw this as a great opportunity to promote the religion (or probably both, and making the best of the situation). From such documents as the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì, we know that she used two main strategies. Firstly, she claimed that she was the incarnation of Maitreya Buddha; secondly, she concocted the story that she has Bodhidharma‘s robe (which confered patriarchship upon the holder). In the same year (690), Wǔ introduced the presentation of the purple robe (紫衣 zĭyī), upon a group of priests, including her lover, the priest Huaiyi 懐義, as a mark of special favour. The earliest record we have on this event is found in the Jiùtáng shū 舊唐書 (Old Táng History):

    Huaiyi, Faming and others made the Dayun jing, in which was displayed a series of signs [concerning the Heavenly] Mandate and in which it was said that Zetian was Maitreya who had descended to be born and act as the head of the Jambudvīpa…Huaiyi, Faming and others, nine people, were all enfeoffed dukes of a subprefecture and were given different objects: all were given the purple kāṣāya and a "silver bag for the tortoise."

    Jiutang shu juan

According to Adamek, the princely purple robe, the imperial talisman, and fief, were indigenous Chinese symbols and substance of enfranchisement, free passage into ancestral ritual arena, heavenly sanction, and material privilege. The giving of the purple robe was merely a mark of imperial favour, not one of the talismans of imperial legitimacy (2000: 71). However, invoking Indian Buddhist mythology, she took the giving of the robe an act of merit that a universal-monarch (cakra,varti) gained from such a gift to the sangha. We should not miss the most significant point regarding empress Wǔ‘s conferring the purple robe upon eminent and favoured priests.

The presentation of the purple robe had an ancient precedent: purportedly, that of the Buddha bestowing a "gold-embroidered" robe on Mahā Kāśyapa. Only this time, it was Wǔ Zétiān who gave the robe. By this act, she had usurped the two highest positions of the Buddhist realm, that of the Buddha himself, and that of the patriarch who was the only legitimate person to hand down the patriarchal robe! All this might have worked well for the Buddhists. To enthrall and domesticate the other subjects at large, Wǔ played on important symbols, something deeply loved and easily understood by the traditional Chinese. Through an auspicious confluence of signs characteristic of her rule, she fashioned a dynastic identity in the time-honoured imperial way, that is, the relationship of name (such as the dynastic name Zhōu 周) and symbols (such as the tortoise, a Chinese symbol of longevity), to invoke universal harmony in terms of Han cosmology.

WǓ AS PATRIARCH-MAKER

In 692, Huìnéng, at Wǔ Zétiān‘s request sent Bodhidharma‘s robe to her at Luòyáng—so says the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì! She was said later to have given it to the monk Zhì- shēn 智詵 (609-702), who thus claimed to be the seventh patriarch in the lineage of the Băotáng monastery (Băotángsì zōng 保唐寺宗). The reason for Wǔ‘s pious generosity is recorded in a dramatic story of a duel between Zhishen and the Indian monk Trepiṭaka (said to be a mind-reader):

    [Zhishen] imagined himself dressed in layman‘s garb looking toward the section office of the western market. Then Trepiṭaka said, "How can [you], a worthy (bhadanta) monk, wear layman‘s clothing and gaze into the midst of a market?" Shen [ie, Zhishen] said, "Very good, try it again." [Another similar scenario follows.] Shen said, "This time will be really good, try one more." Then right where he was, by relying on the Dharma he produced no thoughts at all. That Trepiṭaka searched throughout the Three Worlds, but in vain. The Trepiṭaka brahmin was filled with reverence and respect, and he bowed his head down at Shen‘s feet, telling the Venerable, "I did not know that in the country of the Táng there was Mahāyāna Buddha-Dharma…" [Empress Wǔ] Zetian saw that the Trepiṭaka had taken refuge in Chán master Shen. Zetian submitted a question to all the bhadanta: "Do the Venerables have any desires?" Shenxiu 神秀, Xuanyue 玄約, Laoan 老安 and Xuanze 玄則 all said, "We have no desires." Zetian asked Chán master Shen, "Does the Venerable have any desires?" Chán Master Shen, fearing that he would not be allowed to return home, complied with the will of Zetian and replied, "I have desires." Zetian further asked, "How can you have desires?" Shen replied, "That which is born has desire. That which is not born has no desire." At these words, Zetian was enlightened."

    T51.2075.184a25-b9; Adamek‘s tr, reparagraphed

When Zhishen insisted on returning home, Zetian gives him the Bodhidharma-Huìnéng robe, and other gifts, including an embroidered image of Maitreya. Wendi Adamek notes the significance of this story:

    It is significant that bestowal of the robe takes place in the context of an enlightenment experience signaling Dharma transmission, or mutual understanding between master and pupil, which was a frequent motif in Chán hagiographies. Here, however, the transmission is characterized by several kinds of inversion. First, the transmission of the sudden teaching, the identity between Buddha-Nature and ordinary function that is beyond words, finds its voice as the antinomian affirmation of desire. Second, it is the bestower who is awakened by the recipient. Third, a worldly ruler stands in for the Dharma ruler, Huineng, who is still alive at the time and is subsequently informed by the empress of the fate of his robe. Finally, the bestower is a woman and an empress, a lusus naturae [quirk of nature]—who perhaps not incidentally, was known for her sexual appetites and also for having had her lover ordained the better to bestow upon him legitimacy and favors.

    Adamek 2000: 65, reparagraphed

Wǔ‘s lover was the priest Huaiyi, whom she acquired in 685. Sadly, Huaiyi in due course became jealous that Wǔ Zétiān had taken another lover, the imperial physician Shěn Nánqiú 沈南璆, and in a heated passion, burned down the imperial meeting hall 明堂 and the Heavenly Hall 天堂. Huaiyi was executed in 695. After that, she apparently gave less attention to mysticism and was more absorbed than ever before in the affairs of state.143 However, she also became overly pious towards saintly monks.

WǓ ZÉTIĀN (武則天) & SHÉNXIÙ (神秀)

In late 700, empress Wǔ Zétiān invited the aged Shénxiù to the capital at Luòyáng to teach Chán Buddhism. His welcome in 701 was by all accounts quite spectacular. The Chuán fǎbǎojì 傳法寶紀 (The Annals of the Transmission of the Dharma-treasure, T85.2838) describe Shénxiù‘s path being bedecked with flowers and the master riding on a royal litter. In an unprecedented gesture, the empress herself knelt before the Chán master, touching her forehead to the ground in great reverence, lying prostrate for a inordinately long while. The Annals go on to say that "From princes and nobles down, everyone [in the capital] took refuge in him." (McRae 1986: 51) Empress Wǔ‘s zealous religiosity and ravenous worldliness stand in such stark contrast that it is suggestive of the psychological defence mechanism of compartmentalization or isolation. Compartmentalization is the separation of thoughts, emotions and beliefs, restricting them to a particular action. For example, a salesman spends all the week days making sales in every means possible, with the notion that people are generally gullible; but on Sunday, he prays piously at the church or temple. In the case of Wǔ, it was possible that she was fully focussed on the moment, being extremely pious, or at other times, being voraciously worldly.

However, if Wǔ were to only externally show her piety (maybe to win the support of pious Buddhists or impress others of her "religiosity"), but simply lacking any feeling of piety, then she could be putting up the defence mechanism of isolation, that is, the separation of feelings from ideas and events (for example, describing a murder with graphic details with no emotional response). Of course, she could be susceptible to either one on different occasions.

DREAMS OF A BUDDHA-LAND

The gentry Buddhists, especially the monastics, basked in the pious attention directed to them by empress Wǔ, which was mutually beneficial. The Buddhists legitimized Wǔ as a female cakra,varti, and they were well rewarded here and now. In fact, the excited clergy dreamt of building a Buddha-land of the empire, not through territorial expansion but by superimposing institutional Buddhism over all the land. After all, the empress was Maitreya, the future Buddha, a bodhisattva. The idea of the bodhisattva-ruler was not new: it was found in both Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna societies. Notable Chinese examples were emperor Wǔ of Liáng 梁武帝 (r 502-549) and emperor Wén of Suí 文 隋帝 (r 581-604). Wǔ Zétiān was, of course, unique: not only was her state ideology based on a complex cakra,varti and bodhisattva symbolism—as recorded in the Jiutang shu as mentioned above—but she dared to wear the mantle of Maitreya, the future Buddha himself.

The Italian sinologist Antonino Forte notes that the manipulation of the Maitreya symbol was machinated by Wǔ‘s priest advisors, who indeed, at least provisionally, believed in the advent of a utopian Buddha-land through Wǔ‘s efforts. In their commentary to the Dàyún jīng 大雲經 (Mahā,megha Sūtra), they made the claim that Wǔ was Maitreya, but softened by noting that maitreya merely means one who was compassionate or benevolent.144 Forte thinks that the monks who wrote the commentary appealed to the popularity of Maitreya, but were also wary of the subversive aspects of Maitreya millennarianism. The priests, in other words, wanted to win popular support but without any messianic messages that might raise expectations too high or trigger an open uprising.145 The reality of the situation was that the priests were trying to shift the balance of power from the gentry to the military and civil bureaucracy.

SHATTERED DREAMS

After about 700, the aged empress Wǔ surrendered more power to her latest favourites, whose frivolous excesses finally drove her ministers to impeach them. When that failed, they organized a coup which deposed the empress and restored Zhongzong to the throne. But the emperor was dominated by empress Wei (韋皇后 Wéi huánghòu) and ministers who had served empress Wǔ. It was also a period of severe natural disasters and economic strain. By 750, the situation in the empire had changed so much, especially with the An Lushan rebellion, gentry Buddhism lost its support of the court and began to face the vengeance of the Daoists and the Confucians who dominated the courts in their turn. A Malay proverb goes "after every flood, the sands change" (sekali air bah, sekali pasir berubah): those who swim with the powerful, will sink with them, too.

Shénhuì (菏泽神會/神会), creator of modern Zen?

The evil that men do lives after them; the good is oft interred with their bones. It was mainly the southern monk Shénhuì‘s ambition, genius and evangelism that created much of Zen as we know it today, especially the Zen that piously or fondly looks back to the Platform Sutra. Shénhuì was, of course, a man of his own times, moulded and motivated by the vicissitudes of 8th century southern China, in the twilight of the Táng dynasty, a time marked by religious persecutions and political rebellions.

"METROPOLITAN CHÁN."

Zhāng Yuè 張說 (677-730), the great Táng poet and writer, in his biographical monuments, listed the following as the religious genealogy of Shénxiù:

After Shénxiù‘s death, two of his disciples, Pǔjì 普寂 (651-739) and Yìfú 義福 (658-736), continued to be honoured as national teachers or sangharajahs (guóshī 國師). In their biographical monuments after death, we find same genealogy, which remained unchallenged for thirty years, and is in fact one of the several lineages of the ascetic Laṅkâvatāra school, better known as the Laṅkā school (Léngqié zōng 楞伽宗) since Bodhidharma‘s time.

Shénhuì was notorious for his vicious and victorious attacks on the "Northern" school, but there were other schools of Chán in his own time, too. In a Machiavellian manner, he created a bogeyman calling it the "Northern" School so that the other schools would rally around him. Anyway, in the end, this was what happened after he was honoured by the powers that be and, even posthumously, continued to shape Chán and its various forms to this day.

The Chán of Shénhuì‘s time was basically of two kinds: Tathāgata Chán (rúlái chán 如來禪), represented by the obscure unorganized rustic practitioners, mostly provincial monks scattered in the countryside and distant mountains, and patriarch Chán (zǔshī chán 祖師禪), that is, the better known well-organized urban schools.150 Dàmǎn Hóngrěn 大滿弘忍 (601-674) lived and taught in rural Huángméi 黄梅, in eastern Húběi 湖北 Province, in west central China. Hóngrěn‘s pupils, such as Shénxiù, in due course moved to the imperial capitals, Cháng‘ān and Luòyáng. As such, their tradition had been called "metropolitan Chán" that is, the Chán patronized by notorious empress Wǔ Zétiān.

It was in this metropolitan and imperial ambience, that Shénxiù begun to produce Chán history, or rather his descendents rewrote Chán history in the form of a lineage. Shénxiù called his lineage the "East Mountain teaching" (Dòngshān zōng 東山宗) or "East Mountain Dharma Door" (Dòngshān Fǎmén 東山法門) of Hóngrěn.

The reason for this development is understandable: in the crowded life of the imperial metropolis, the Chán group felt a need to consolidate itself with a Chán identity. The best way to identify and legitimize itself would be to build up this identity by way of an ancestral lineage "attributed retrospectively to the putative founder of Ch‘an, Bodhidharma." (Buswell 1987: 357 n3)

According to John McRae, the earliest recorded instance of such written recording was the epitaph (or inscription) of the monk Fărú 法如 (638-689), a pupil of Hóngrěn. By the second decade of the 8th century, Hóngrěn‘s later followers had produced two new texts listing the transmission from Bodhidharma to Shénxiù. These were the Annals of the Transmissions of the Dharma Treasure (Chuán fǎbǎo jì 傳法寶紀) and the Record of the Teachers and Disciples of the Laṅkâvatāra (Lèngqié shīzī jì 楞伽師資記).

We have no records of the teachings and writings of provincial Huangmei, which were probably simple and unsophisticated. When Hóngrěn‘s successors and descendents moved to the busy and sophisticated ambience of the capitals, with their literate society, the new writings, too, became more systematic and sophisticated for the purpose of proselytization. Very soon after metropolitan Chán rose in the north, the evangelical southern priest, Shénhuì, manipulated a rustic Chán ascetic, Huìnéng, making him the sixth patriarch. And, as already mentioned, while Shénhuì was working to enthrone the obscure ascetic Huìnéng, other urban Chán schools were also busily fabricating "histories" of their own lineages and of Chán as a whole. They compiled their own "lamp records" (dēnglù 燈錄) to legitimize their lineages, and wrote "recorded sayings" (yǔlù 語錄) to canonize and glorify their patriarchs. With this, Tathāgata Chán began to be replaced by patriarch Chán: as such, historically, Tathāgata Chán ended with the East Mountain school of Shénxiù and his immediate successors.

From the inscriptions of the Tiāntái monk Zuǒxī Xuánlǎng 左溪玄朗 (673-754), done by Lìhuā 利華 (717?-774?) probably shortly after Xuanlang‘s demise, four Chán schools are mentioned:

  • The Northern School (Běizōng 北宗), which went back to the Buddha himself, who transmitted the mind-dharma to Kāṥyapa, down through 29 patriarchs157 until Bodhidharma, who transmitted the Laṅkâvatāra Sūtra, which passed through eight generations, down to the Chán master Hóngzhèng 宏正.
  • "The one fountain-head of Northern Chán," beginning in the sixth generation from Bodhidharma, to the Chán master Datong (Shénxiù), then down to the Chán master Tazhi (Yìfú), who handed it down to the Chán master Jung (unknown) of the Shanbei Temple in Cháng‘ān.
  • Southern Chán, descended from Bodhidharma to the fifth patriarch Sēngcàn [an error for Hóngrěn], from whom it was transmitted to Huìnéng.
  • Ox-head (Niútóu 牛頭) school, transmitted from Bodhidharma to Dàoxìn, in the fourth generation, and down to the Chán master Farong (594-657) of Niútóu shan (Ox-head Mountain), then down to the Chán master Jingshan.

Regarding this list, Yampolsky notes that "it would seem evident that Li Hua considered the Northern School of Ch‘an as the dominant one, although he recognized the presence of the Southern School, without mentioning Shen-hui‘s name" (1967: 39). The omission of any mention of Shénhuì, Yampolsky surmises, was probably because the inscription was made while Shénhuì was in exile (753-759).

SHÉNHUÌ ATTACKS THE "NORTHERN" SCHOOL

In 734, while Pǔjì was still living, Shénhuì, before a large gathering in a monastery in Huatai,159 openly challenged the validity of Shénxiù‘s lineage and his school. He claimed that Bodhidharma gave Huìkě the robe (jiāshā 袈裟, Skt kāsāya) as testimony to the transmission of the true teaching after Huìkě cut off his arm and offered it to Bodhidharma (a tale fabricated by Shénhuì). This robe, Shénhuì claimed, was handed down by Huìkě to his chosen successor, and in four generations, came down to Hóngrěn, who, however, gave it, not to Shénxiù, but to Huìnéng in the south.

Shénhuì went on to openly charge Pǔjì for "usurping" the title of seventh patriarch, thus establishing his teacher as the sixth patriarch, as recorded in his Shénhuì yǔlù: During his lifetime the Ch‘an Master Shen-hsiu stated that the role symbolic of the Dharma, as transferred in the sixth generation, was at Shao-chou;160 he never called himself the Sixth Patriarch. But now P‘u-chi [Pǔjì ] calls himself by the title of the Seventh Patriarch, and falsely states that his Master was the Sixth. This must not be permitted. (Shénhuǐ yǔlù [Hu Shih text, frag 3]; Hu Shih 1930: 176, qu in Yampolsky 1967: 28) Either Shénhuì deeply believed in the myth he had created or out of pure hubris, when warned of the gravity of his charges, replied that he did not fear for his life. He even went on to charge that the teaching of Shénxiù and Pǔjì was false because it recognized only gradual enlightenment (another fabrication of his).

Shénhuì, in his dialogue with Dharma master Yuan, proudly proclaimed that he was a tenth-stage bodhisattva, misquoting a passage from the Nirvāṇa Sūtra.161 "It is interesting," observes Mario Poceski, "to note that Shenhui‘s vrazen boast that he is a tenth stage bodhisattva constitutes a pārajika offense, the most serious form of monastic transgression that leads to automatic exclusion from the order." (2002: 12). Shénhuì further condemned what the Chinese then took to be the fourfold satipatthanas (Skt smṛtyûpasthāna) or dhyana formula162 as taught by Pǔjì and the students of Shénxiù. Shénhuì charged that all this was a "hindrance to enlightenment." He declared that all forms of sitting meditation164 were simply unnecessary. "If it is right to sit in meditation, then why should Vimalakīrti scold Sāriputta for sitting in meditation in the woods?" he reasoned. "Here in my school, to have no-thought is sitting-meditation, and to see our original nature is chán 禪 (Skt dhyāna; P jhāna)!" A brilliant scholar and speaker Shénhuì might have been, but obviously, he was no meditator. Here, the great Chinese scholar and writer, Hu Shih, makes this important remark:

    Thus Shen-hui proceeded from denunciation of the most highly honored school of the empire to a revolutionary pronouncement of a new Ch‘an which renounces ch‘an itself and is therefore no ch‘an at all. This doctrine of Sudden Enlightenment he does not claim as his own theory or that of his teacher, the illiterate monk Hui-neng of Shaozhou, but only as the true teaching of all the six generations of the school of Bodhidharma. All this, according to the newly discovered documents, took place in 734 in a monastery in Huatai, which was a provincial capital fairly far away from the great cities of Changan and Loyang.

    (Hu Shih 1953:7)

SHÉNHUÌ FABRICATES CHÁN HISTORY

In 745, Shénhuì was invited to the Hézé Monastery in Luòyáng, the eastern capital of the empire, and would in due course be known by the title of "the Master of Hézé 荷澤大師." He arrived in Luòyáng at the advanced age of 77 and remained there more than eight years. There, he repeated his open challenge that the line of transmission claimed by the school of Shénxiù, Yìfú, and Pǔjì was not historical, and that their teaching of gradual enlightenment was false. As an eloquent preacher and dramatic tale-spinner, he made up many apocryphal stories, such as Bodhidharma‘s meeting with emperor Wǔ of Liang, and the tale of the second patriarch Huìkě‘s cutting off his own left arm to show his earnest desire for Dharma instruction.167 Such stories were later further embellished and enshrined in the traditional history of Chinese Ch‘an.

Shénhuì‘s discourses (Shénhuì yǔlù) 168 show that he was in close communication with a number of prominent literati and statesmen of his times. From this group, he chose the eminent poet Wáng Wéi 王維 (701-761) as the biographer of his "teacher," Huìnéng (whom he probably had never met). Undoubtedly, this is the earliest legendary biography of Huìnéng and is preserved in section 63 of the Táng wéncuì 唐文粹, where it is stated that the Chán master Hóngrěn regarded his southern "barbarian" lay labourer as having alone understood his teaching, gave him "the robe of the patriarchs" and then told him to flee.

SHÉNHUÌ‘S EXILE

Shénhuì‘s eloquence and evangelism attracted a great following, and this became his undoing. His public talks were drawing such huge crowds that he attracted the attention of the authorities. In 753, the martyr-statesman Lúyì 盧奕, Chief of Imperial Censors, presented a memorial to emperor Xuánzōng 玄宗 (685-762, r 713-756), reporting that Shénhuì was "gathering large crowds of people around him and might be suspected of some conspiracy injurious to the interests of the State." The emperor then exiled him to Yìyáng 弋陽, in Jiāngxī 江西, whence he was thrice transferred in the next two years. During the third year of Shénhuì‘s exile, the Ān Lùshān 安禄山 rebellion (755-763) broke out threatening to topple the Táng dynasty. The rebel armies, originating from the northeastern provinces and sweeping across the northern plains were, within a few months, able to capture the eastern capital, Luò- yáng, and block all the passes leading to Cháng‘ān, the other capital, located 300 km to the west. Cháng‘- ān fell in 756. The emperor fled to Chéngdū 成都, leaving his son and crown prince, Sùzōng (肅宗 711-762, r 756-762), in the northwest to take charge of affairs. The heir apparent was proclaimed the new emperor and was able to organize a government and rally the loyal armies to fight the rebellion and save the empire. In 757, both capitals were recovered, and the rebellion was suppressed within six years.

ORDINATION CERTIFICATES

Shénhuì and his school might well have ended in obscurity, if not for the An Lushan Rebellion, and it was clearly an era of high social drama. This rebellion, led by an ambitious man of the world, general An Lushan, lasted for nearly a decade and badly strained the imperial treasury. When the new government was formed in 756, it needed funds to crush the rebellion. To raise badly needed funds, the new emperor Sùzōng ordered, in 757, that ordination platforms be built in major prefectures, and aspirants be allowed to become monastics—by donating "incense money" (xiāngshuǐqián 香水錢) (a lucrative euphemism) of a hundred strings of cash176 in exchange for ordination certificates (dùdié 度牒). The high cost of such a document was well worth it: the holder was exempt from taxation, corvée, and conscription.

THE POWER OF MONEY

The authorities recalled the great eloquence and charisma of the exiled Shénhuì, probably on account of his Chán friends in high places, such as Miáo Jìnqīng 苗晉卿 and Fáng Guǎn 房琯. So Shénhuì, at 89, returned to the devastated city of Luòyáng, attracted huge crowds, and sold a great number of ordination certificates. Through this, he succeeded in significantly replenishing the imperial coffers. Understandably, the Japanese Buddhologist UI Hakuju openly disapproves of Shénhuì‘s actions as "traits deserving of moral censure and criticism for intolerance." (1939: 227) The new emperor, in appreciation of Shénhuì‘s monetary contributions, invited him to his restored palace and ordered the Department of Works to accelerate the building of his new quarters at the Hézé Monastery (Hézé sì 荷澤寺), which was then returned to him. Re-ensconced on his Dharma-throne here, he continued to recruit disciples against the "Northern School." Hence, his lineage is sometimes known as the "Hézé School" (Hézé zōng 荷澤宗). The exiled heretic Shénhuì had become an honoured and successful hero of the empire. He died in 762 at ninety-two, leaving behind his life‘s work: the myth of Huìnéng which would shape much of Chán Buddhism up to our times.

THE SEVENTH PATRIARCH

In 770, a decade after Shénhuì‘s death, by an imperial decree, his chapel was named "The Hall of Wisdom Transmission of the True School." The Chán monk historian and Shénhuì sympathiser, Zōngmì (宗密 780-841)179 of the Hézé school, reports that in 796 emperor Dézōng 德宗 issued an imperial decree establishing "the Master of Hézé," Shénhuì, officially as the seventh patriarch—which implied that his "teacher," the illiterate monk, Huìnéng, was officially recognized by the authorities as the sixth patriarch. In 815, at the request of the Viceroy of Lǐngnán 嶺南, an imperial decree conferred posthumous honours on Huìnéng, who "had died 106 years ago" (which would date his death as in 711, instead of the traditional date of 713). The decree designated him "the Master of Great Insight." On public request, two of the great writers of the age, Liǔ Zōngyuán 柳宗元 (773-819) and Liú Yǔxī 劉禹錫 (772-842), wrote two biographical monuments in honour of Huìnéng, wherein he was referred to as the sixth patriarch after Bodhidharma. The Huìnéng myth is now received history, and Shénhuì‘s victory was enhanced, even after his death. Through rhetoric and mythopoeia, and sheer political serendipity, Shénhuì successfully created the sixth patriarch who is honoured even to this day.

WORLDLY SUCCESS AND RELIGIOUS TRUTH

With Shenhui‘s phenomenal success in promoting Huìnéng as the sixth patriarch, and serendipitously, with the disappearance of Shénxiù‘s East Mountain School (hinayanized by Shénhuì as the "Northern" School) through historical vicissitudes (mainly, on account of the loss of patronage of those in power), his Hézé School became supreme. There was a frantic rush by every Chán school to take Shénhuì (in effect, Huìnéng) as their Chán ancestors. The well-documented history of Shénhuì records the colourful past of Chán in China. It is an excellent record of how worldly success creates religious truth. People are more easily moved by palpable display of power and material success, which are regarded as the fruiting of a person‘s good karma.181 Without a deep and mature understanding of the Buddha Dharma, however, people are easily swayed by the world, and here we can see official history and tradition supporting such a powerful counter-current of strange happenings in the name of Buddhism.

The point is that Chán Buddhism was not a "revolution" against scholasticism, and "the success of Ch‘an might better be viewed as an accommodation to the tastes of the rising literati class in the Sung" (Welter 2000: 101 n12). The famous collections of Chán dialogues (yǔlù 語錄) and the pious hagiographies or "lamp transmission records" (dēnglù 燈錄) were compiled and edited to appeal to Sòng literary taste and sociopolitical sensitivities.

When a religious teacher wants to impress an important point on his audience, he would tell a story, and if he is famous or of some status (such as a chief high priest or a high lama), the story is often taken as gospel truth. Even when the story does have a point, its spirit is not often taken or quickly forgotten. Other speakers (out of piety or guile) then seize such hallowed stories and make it theirs; and so they all become prisoners of the story. Veritably, the sins of the fathers do visit their children, 184 that is, until the imprisoning walls are broken down, or at least a chink is made in the wall through which a vision of true reality can be glimpsed.

What is the lesson here? We see here the power of the word that could support a whole system of religious hierarchy and hegemony never seen in early Indian Buddhism. This dogma of the word will only be surpassed in the modern world with the Word of the Bible Christianity, and other cultish Buddhisms. When the purpose is to centre power and religious will upon an individual or lineage to hold a church or cult together, nothing is as powerful as the printed word. For this reason, such leaders often ensure that their writings are well published and widely circulated. Such writings characteristically try to promote the teacher above the teachings.

BUDDHISM "WITHOUT BOUNDARIES"?

The point is that, we need to be very careful how we accept religious teachings (or any kind of information, for that matter) from anyone no matter how knowledgeable, famous, powerful, wealthy, titled or agreeable, whether monastic or lay. A good place to see and hear how some big Buddhist names make fools of themselves or hold wrong views is any large Buddhist gathering, especially a global conference. Ajahn Brahmavamso, in his talk on "Human rights in Buddhism" (Dhammaloka Buddhist Centre, 9th June 2000) has some sobering words for us here:

We also need some checks and balances, because we need boundaries for everybody. Sometimes when we don‘t understand the meaning of freedom, we remove all the boundaries, whether in the practice of religion, or in the practice of education. Whether it‘s living together as a family or just in general life, we don‘t put boundaries in place because we think freedom means "no boundaries." We get into all sorts of confusion.

    In fact one of the speakers at this conference, who[m] I didn‘t really respect, said she was a Buddhist without boundaries. I was not at all inspired by her. Why do you even call yourself a Buddhist if you don‘t have any boundaries? To be a Buddhist you‘ve got to have boundaries. I accept some statements and ideas but not others, otherwise why call yourself a Buddhist. Why not call yourself a Buddhist-Christian-Jewish-Moslem-Atheist-freethinker? That‘s not having boundaries. The point is, it‘s good to have boundaries.

    Brahmavamso, 2007:154; reparagraphed

On the positive side, there is Buddhism "without boundaries," that is, the cultivation of lovingkindness to such a level that we do not differentiate between self and other, we go beyond differences and categories. This is a very advanced and beautiful stage in lovingkindness practice, when we fully feel the lovingkindness, when it is no more on the level of thought and language. It is a dhyanic experience of lovingkindness. Even when you come out of such an experience, its wholesome force propels you on with unconditional love for all beings.

Such lovingkindness is not the sheepish and delirious unthinking acceptance of everything and everyone: everything is not beautiful, only thinking makes it so. When we go beyond thinking and truly feel in a selfless way, then everything is beautiful. That is to say, there is the potential of goodness in everyone. This goodness is not found outside of ourselves, but in the inner stillness of our calm minds. You can inspire others to think, but only they can think for themselves. You also need to inspire others to truly feel, because they can only feel for themselves. The practice of the breath meditation and the cultivation of lovingkindness are the best tools for experiencing such thinking and feeling.

SEEKERS BEWARE!

In such discourses as the Vīmaṁsaka Sutta (M 47), the Buddha tells us that all teachers should be carefully investigated with regards to their behaviour, speech and thought, even those of the Buddha himself, and he openly shows us how to do this. This sutta is worth reading from beginning to end.186 The point is that just because something has been spoken or attested to by a great monk or nun, priest or priestess, a high lama, a chief high priest, or a venerable doctor so and so, or a great Chán master, or a very old fatherly figure, or your favourite teacher, need not be the truth or even a helpful half-truth.

We may feel inspired or elated by the presence or thought of such a person—this wonderful feeling is the result of our own faith and desire to learn, but not necessarily because of the person. Or, we could feel a deep respect, fear, or awe for such a wonderful figure—this could be because we were a monastic slave in China or Tibet, or a temple hand in Sri Lanka or Thailand, our past lives.187 In an important way, this is what is meant by putting the Teaching above the teacher. Furthermore, for this reason, it is sometimes hard to explain why we can be powerfully or uncontrollably drawn to a person, especially a religious figure. We do not need rebirth regression therapy or past-life regression (PLR) therapy to understand why. Such therapies may be interesting and dramatic, but not always accurate or even useful, because our memory, even under hypnosis, could fail us. After all, our memory is what we choose to remember or what we think we remember. The solution to our problems lies in present-moment awareness and effort, and true spiritual friends.

The message of the (Ahita) Thera Sutta (A 5.88) is simple and clear: even if a teacher is senior, is famous, receives much public donations, is deeply experienced in the Dharma, and is very learned, he still may have wrong view. The wrong views of such a teacher easily and deeply affect the public (including the gods) to their great detriment. Then there are those who, merely on account of five qualities, attribute charisma to that teacher, so that they perceive him or her not only as "right," but as the only one who is right. Such a teacher easily attracts a cult and badly damages Buddhism.

The real Sixth Patriarch

HUMBLE BEGINNINGS

Who really was Dàjiàn Huìnéng 大鑒慧能189 of Sháozhōu 韶州(638-713), whom we all know famously as "the sixth patriarch"? Did he ever call himself or know that he was the sixth patriarch? Did Huìnéng write the Platform Sutra, or who actually wrote it? What do we know of the illiterate monk Huìnéng, the sixth patriarch? These are the main questions we will now explore.

In the "Records of the Masters and the Law of the Lankā School" (Léngjiā rénfǎ zhì 楞伽人法志), written shortly after Shénxiù‘s death in 706 by one of his students, it was stated that the Laṅkā master Hóngrěn (the fifth patriarch, 601-674) had stated before his death that there were eleven disciples or heirs who could carry on his teaching. These eleven included: Shénxiù, Zhìshēn (智詵) of Zhīzhōu 資州 (in modern Sichuan), Huìnéng of Sháozhōu, and seven other fairly well-known monks and one layman. The second heir, Zhìshēn (d 702), was a Chán teacher in western China, and from whom, says the historian Zōngmì ware descended two of the seven important Chán schools of the 8th century. Hu Shih takes Hóngrěn‘s list of eleven heirs to be "fairly authentic, because it was probably made before Shénhuì‘s put forth his dramatic challenge and long before the two schools descended from Chih-hsin [Zhìshēn] became nationally famous." (1953: 10). We may then conclude, adds Hu Shih, that Huìnéng was one of the eleven better-known disciples of Hóngrěn. The claim that Huìnéng alone was the secret inheritor of the true teaching and "the robe of the patriarchs" was very likely a myth invented by Shénhuì (id).

According to a biography of Huìnéng by Wáng Wéi (王維 701-761) [5.2.4.2], written between 734 and 740,193 Huìnéng was born of a lowly family in Lǐngnán 嶺南, where an aborigine tribe lived peacefully with the Chinese. In fact, in Shénhuì‘s brief account of Huìnéng‘s life, and in the Platform Sutra, he was called a Gélǎo 獦獠, one of the aboriginal peoples of the southwest (north of Vietnam). He was a manual laborer, moving northward and finding work at the monastery where the master Hóngrěn resided, where he was a quick learner. After the alleged transmission of the patriarchal robe, he returned to the south where for 16 years living among the poor and the lowly, the farmers and the small tradesmen. Then, he was discovered by a teacher of the Parinirvāṇa Sūtra195 who ordained him and started him on his own teaching career.

Most accounts of Huìnéng say that he retired to the Bǎolín sì 寶林寺 in Cáoxī 曹溪 (in Guangdong, south China). Some traditions say that Huìnéng was summoned to the imperial capital by the emperor Zhongzong or the empress Wǔ. In any case, Huìnéng declined, preferring to spend his days in the mountains and forests teaching the Dharma.196

HUÌNÉNG‘S CHARISMA

What did Huìnéng teach? According to Wang Wei, he taught forbearance (rěn 忍), as evident from these passages he quoted:

    "He who forbears denies his own life and is therefore selfless."
    "This formed his first vow and his principal teaching."
    "He often said with a sigh: ‗To give even all the Seven Treasures as alms, or to practise Chán for even myriads of years, or to write with all the ink in the universe—none of these can compare with a life of non-activity (wúwéi 無為) and infinite love‘."

    Wang Wei 446-449: Néng chánshī bēi 能禪師碑

Of Huìnéng, the Táng literato and philosopher, Liǔ Zōngyuán, at Shénhuì‘s behest, glowingly wrote in 816 that "his teaching began with the goodness of human nature and ended with the goodness of human nature. There is no need of ploughing or weeding: it was originally pure."

From such testimonials, and from Shénhuì‘s emphasis on sudden enlightenment, concludes Hu Shih (1953: 11), we may infer that this southern master of lowly Gelao origin was probably a tóutuó 頭陀 (dhutaṅga or ascetic monk),197 as most of the earlier members of the Laṅkā School were, whose first principle, according to Bodhidharma, was forbearance of all insult and suffering.198 On the significance of al this, Hu Shih instructively observes:

    He probably learned from his life-experience among the simple folks that there was the real possibility of opening the hearts and minds of men through some act of sudden awakening. Shenhui used the proverbial expression "the sword pierces directly through." The Chinese people to this day have translated the notion of sudden enlightenment into a simple proverb: "He lays down the butcher‘s cleaver, and immediately becomes a Buddha."

    That was probably the kind of simple and direct message which Huineng had for the poor and the lowly who understood him and loved him. He made light of "all the ink in the universe," and left no writing.

    Thus the first Chinese School of Ch‘an was established through Shenhui‘s thirty years (730- 760) of bitter fighting and popular preaching, and through the official recognition of Huineng as the Sixth Patriarch and Shenhui as the Seventh Patriarch of "the True School."

    By the last quarter of the eighth century, there began a great stampede in the Ch‘an schools—a stampede of almost every teacher or school of Ch‘an to join the school of Huineng and Shenhui. It was not easy, however, to claim a tie to Shenhui, who had died only too recently. But Huineng had died early in the eighth century, and his disciples were mostly unknown ascetics who lived and died in their hilly retreats. One could easily claim to have paid a visit to some of them.

    Hu Shih 1953: 11 f

We have no clear or convincing evidence that Shénhuì ever visited Huìnéng. Whatever accounts we have of his "visits" to Huìnéng differ from one another. Huìnéng (638-713) would be about 50 when Shénhuì (688-762) was born. The Sòng Gāosēng zhuàn 宋高僧傳 (T50.765c) and Wang Wei‘s inscription indicate that he was middle-aged when he met Huìnéng. The Jǐngdé chuándēng lù 景德傳燈錄 (T51.245a) and Zhōnghuá chuán xīndì chánmén shīzī chéngxítú200 say that he was then 14, and in the Platform Sutra (§48), Huìnéng is said to have referred to Shénhuì as a "young monk" (xiǎosēng 小僧).

The purpose of this account of an early meeting was of course to reinforce the credibility of Shénhuì‘s links with Huìnéng or to highlight them (like how we would list our service record and prestigious awards in our curriculum vitae).

Hu Shih, in his Shénhuì héshang yíjí, 神會和尚遺集 points out that since Wáng Wéi's inscription was made while Shénhuì was still alive, Wang Wei‘s information (that Shénhuì was middle-age when he met Huìnéng), is probably credible (1968: 7). According to Yampolsky, the story of the youthful Shénhuì‘s visit to Huìnéng, and the various details of Shénhuì‘s life, especially found in Jǐngdé chuándēng lù and Zōngmì‘s work, "may best be regarded as legends of the type which tended to grow up around any priest of exceptional fame." (1967: 26 n69)

A NATIVE OF SOUTH CHINA

Huìnéng is perhaps the most famous figure in Chán history, and the deepest and strongest ancient rock on which all of Chán since the 8th century are founded. Yet, we have very little historical fact about him. There is effectively almost no historical record about him, but pious and polemical legends about him abound.

Dàjiàn Huìnéng 大鉴慧能 (638-713) was a Chinese ascetic monk who is one of the most important figures of the entire Chán tradition of East Asia and their branches, vicariously installed by Shénhuì as the sixth patriarch of Chán Buddhism, and effectively its last official patriarch. After him, there were respective unofficial patriarchs of different lineages. He is known as Daikan Enō in Japanese and as Hyeneung 혜능 in Korean.

Shénhuì introduced the famous legend of Huìnéng‘s lowly origins, as a young illiterate firewoodseller, one day heard the Diamond Sutra (Jīn’gāng jīng 金剛經) 201 and travelled 800 km (500 miles) to meet the fifth Chán patriarch, Hóngrěn (601–674), in North China. Then came the famous verse-writing competition. But before we go on to examine the mind-verses, one related point is worth noting, as McRae suggests, that is,

    …in some of its details the Platform Sūtra account is clearly written as historical allegory. Note, for example, the shift from Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra to Diamond Sūtra implied in the account (ie, in the cancellation of the painting commission and Hóngrěn‘s teaching to Huìnéng), which parallels the two texts‘ changes in popularity over the course of the eighth century. The position of the Laṅkā- vatāra within Chán was always ambiguous, since the text was more revered in the abstract than actually studied.

    However, it was generally associated with "Northern school" teachers. Shénhuì was one of the first monks of his day, but by no means the only one, to favour the Diamond, which was becoming more widely popular throughout the Chinese tradition at the time.

    Hence, in the Platform Sūtra the two texts roughly symbolize the Northern and Southern schools. Also, Shénxiù‘s prominence within Hóngrěn‘s community and Huìnéng‘s inferior status may be taken as an indication of the relative strengths of the two faction prior to the composition of the Platform Sūtra.

    McRae 2003: 62

VERSES OF SHÉNXIÙ AND HUÌNÉNG

According to the well known legend, in a dramatic poetry contest in 661, the senior East Mountain monk, Shénxiù 神秀 (605–706), wrote this mind-verse,

    身是菩提樹 (身是菩提树) shēn shì pú tí shù
    心如明鏡台 (心如明镜台) xīn rú míng jìng tái
    時時勤拂拭 (时时勤拂试) shí shí qín fú shì
    勿使惹塵埃 (莫使惹尘埃) wù shǐ rě chén āi

    The body is the bodhi tree,
    the mind like a bright mirror's stand.
    Ever strive to polish it
    and let not any dust collect.

    48.2008.348b24-25

According to Platform Sutra, Hóngrěn publicly praised this verse and instructed all his monks to recite it. But privately, Hóngrěn asked Shénxiù to compose another verse, as Hóngrěn believed that Shénxiù‘s verse lacked a true understanding of the Dharma. Shénxiù was unable to do so. Meanwhile, the illiterate Huìnéng heard a novice chanting this verse and asked about it. When told the story of Hóngrěn‘s contest, Huìnéng asked a monk to take him to the wall where Shénxiù's verse was written. There he asked someone to write his own verse. Huìnéng‘s mind-verse read:

    菩提本無樹 (菩提本无树) pú tí běn wú shù
    明鏡亦非台 (明镜亦非台) míng jìng yì fēi tái
    本來無一物 (本来无一物) běn lái wú yī wù
    何處惹塵埃 (何处惹尘埃) hé chù rě chén āi

    Bodhi originally is no tree.
    The bright mirror too has no stand.
    From the start, there is not a single thing.
    So where could dust collect?

    T48.2008.349a7-8

John McRae, in Seeing Through Zen (2003),205 points out that the earliest version of the Platform Sutra has two versions of Huìnéng‘s mind-verse (with McRae‘s translations):

    菩提本無樹 (菩提本无树) pú tí běn wú shù
    明鏡亦無臺 (明镜亦无台) míng jìng yì wú tái
    佛性常清淨 (佛性常清净) fó xìng cháng qīng jìng
    何處有塵埃 (何处有尘埃) hé chù yŏu chén āi

    Bodhi originally has no tree.
    The mirror also has no stand.
    The Buddha-nature is always clear and pure.
    Where is there room for dust?

    T48.2007.338a7-8

又偈曰 yòujiéyuē And another verse says:

    心是菩提樹 (心是菩提树) xīn shì pú tí shù
    身爲明鏡臺 (身为明镜台) shēn wéi míng jìng tái
    明鏡本清淨 (明镜本清净) míng jìng běn qīng jìng
    何處染塵埃 (何处染尘埃) hé chù rǎn chén āi

    The mind is the bodhi tree
    The body is the bright mirror's stand.
    The bright mirror is originally clear and pure.
    Where could there be any dust?

    T48.2007.338a10-11

It is only in later versions that the third line, "Fundamentally [or, From the start] there is not a single thing" 本來無一物 is found (McRae 2003: 61 f). These variations apparently show that these verses have evolved over time. An interesting observation by McRae is that there is no reference to Shénhuì in the Platform Sutra. Shénhuì‘s own works never mention the "mind-verses" or anything like the Platform Sutra story,

    which is an important indication that the verses were composed after his death. At the very least, the verses could not have been written prior to Shenhui‘s vigorous campaign on behalf of Huineng as sixth patriarch, nor Shenhui‘s vigorous espousal of the teaching of sudden enlightenment. One of the most important features of the Platform Sūtra, in other words, is that it incorporates Shenhui'‘ innovations while writing him out of the story….even as Shenhui transformed the understanding of the evolution of Chán, the factionalist cast of his campaign stigmatized Shenhui himself.

    McRae 2003: 63

As regards the verses themselves, the traditional interpretation, since the time of the Chán and Huáyán systematizer, Zōngmì (780-841), was that Shénxiù‘s verse represented gradualism and Huìnéng‘s subitism (that enlightenment occurs in a single transformation that is both total and instantaneous). Scholars now reject this simplistic explanation. McRae explains:

    (Zongmi artificially claimed succession from Shenhui, but given the manifest difference between Shenhui‘s teachings and the Platform Sutra, Zongmi‘s interpretation should be recognized as a tactical distortion of the original.)

    First, the verse attributed to Shenxiu does not in fact refer to gradual or progressive endeavor, but to a constant practice of cleaning the mirror. Hence, Zongmi‘s traditional interpretation is conceptually incorrect.

    Second, the verse attributed to Huineng could not stand alone (nor could any of the variants attributed to him), since it could not be understood without reference to ?Shenxiu‘s? verse. Since the two verses constitute an indivisible pair—they indicate a single polarity, not two separate teachings—it is inappropriate to use either verse as a key to the religious teachings of the two historical individuals Shenxiu and Huineng.

    McRae 2003: 63 f

Furthermore, there is no indication that the historical ShĂ©nxiu ever wrote anything like the verse attributed to him in the Platform Sutra, or even that he made any metaphorical identification between the mind and the mirror‘s stand.

    However, it would have been entirely in character for him to have done so
 Shenxiu might have posited the body as the overall setting for enlightenment (ie the bodhi tree), the sensory and intellectual activity of the mind as the proximate support for enlightenment (ie the mirror‘s stand), and the pure or enlightened mind itself as the illuminative surface of the mirror—and the act of rubbing the mirror clean of dust as a standard maintenance operation similar to maintenance of the Buddhist precepts or monastic regulations. Based on the most comprehensive reading of the texts pertaining to Shenxiu, it is apparent that the basic message was that of the constant and perfect teaching, the endless personal manifestation of the bodhisattva ideal.

    McRae 2003: 64 f

HUÌNÉNG BECOMES A MONK

It should be noted that at this point, Huìnéng was still a layman. Huìnéng returned to Canton (Guāngdōng 廣東), in south China, in 676. It is said that when he was 39, he arrived at the Zhìzhǐ sì 制旨寺, 206 under the abbacy of Yìnzōng 印宗, an authority on the Nirvāṇa Sūtra. A popular legend says that there he met two monks arguing as to whether the banner on a staff was moving or the wind was moving, and he declared that it was neither—it was the mind that moved. The abbot, impressed, spoke with Huìnéng and discovered that he was the fifth patriarch‘s heir. Huìnéng was ordained in the same year (676). For the next 37 years, he propagated the teaching. As we have already noted, Huìnéng‘s teachings were simple, mainly based on forbearance, and that "his teaching began with the goodness of human nature and ended with the goodness of human nature. There is no need of ploughing or weeding: it was originally pure" (Liǔ Zōngyuán). An important departure from early Buddhism was that Huìnéng taught "sudden enlightenment," that is, he understood Buddhism in terms of the Daoist non-activity (無為 wúwéi). Indeed, it could be said that much of Chán was Daoist philosophy covered with a veneer of Buddhist meditation.209

HUÌNÉNG‘S TEACHINGS

The Platform Sutra records Huìnéng as teaching that we all have the Buddha-nature and that our nature is originally pure. Instead of reading scriptures, building temples, making offerings, reciting the Buddha‘s name, and praying for rebirth in paradise, we should instead simply seek to discover our own nature, in which all the Buddhas and Buddhist doctrines are present. The way to discover our Buddha-nature is through calm and wisdom, which will be attained when we are freed from deliberate thought and from attachment. To him, the traditional sitting meditation is useless, for stillness is not motionlessness but the state of having an untroubled inner nature and an absence of false view. If we see our own nature, enlightenment will suddenly occur, without any help.

Early Indian Buddhism teaches that moral virtues should be the basis and support for mental concentration, which in turn, is a means for attaining liberating wisdom, Huìnéng of the Platform Sutra taught the inseparability and identity of meditation and wisdom. Using an analytic device probably introduced by the so-called neo-Daoist philosopher Wáng Bì 王弼 (226-249), the tīyòng 體用 model,210 Huì- néng (that is, the Platform author) claimed that meditation (samādhi) is the essence (tī 體) of wisdom (prajñā), and wisdom is the function (yòng 用) of meditation. Clearly contradicting the early Buddhist teachings, Huìnéng taught that wisdom did not produce meditation, nor did meditation produce wisdom; nor were meditation and wisdom different from each other.

    N’atthi jhānaṁ apaññassa
    paññā n’atthi ajhāyato
    yamhi jhānañ ca paññā ca
    sa ve nibbāna,santike

    There is no meditation211 for one lacking wisdom,
    There is no wisdom for one without meditation.
    In whom there are meditation and wisdom,
    He, indeed, is in nirvana‘s presence.

    Dh 373

He drew the analogy of a lamp: the lamp is the tī (wisdom), and its light is the yòng (function). Wherever there is a burning lamp, there is light; wherever there is lamplight, there is a lamp. Lamp and light are different in name but identical in substance (tī), hence they are non-dual.

THE ROOTS OF "NO-THOUGHT"

The Chinese Buddhist notion of the non-duality of wisdom and meditation began here in the Platform Sutra. Hereafter, with the exception of later syncretists like Yánshòu in China and Chinul (1158-1210) in Korea, Chán theorists abandoned the terms and concepts of samādhi and prajñā in their description of meditation practice. Instead, they advocated the practice of "no-thought" (wúniàn 無念) or "no-mind" (wúxīn 無心). This is defined in the Platform Sutra simply as "No thought is not to think even when you are thinking"212 (wúniànzhě yú niàn ér bú niàn 無念者於念而 不念). With the Chán emphasis on direct insight, there is no place left for the progressive development of samādhi and prajñā. "Ultimately, what need was there to retain such terms if samādhi and prajñā were collapsed into one another, or were said always to be present?" (Buswell 1987: 330). Buswell has pointed out that this early Chán notion of non-duality of "no-thought" closely parallels the early Buddhist teaching of papañca, that is, mental proliferation,214 or conceptualization as a form of projection (xìlùn 戲論), "of imputing one‘s own vision of the world to the world itself, and assuming that to be the sole reality. He insightfully adds:

    Concepts are convenient for ordering the overwhelming chaos of sensory impression and for allowing reasoned response to those perceptions. But this very convenience prompts the person to view the world through arbitrary stereotypes—treating everything always in terms of what it means to him, rather than what it actually is. But suppose a person were able to enjoy the benefits of using concept while keeping his mind free from the problems they create. That is, if one could conceptualize while remaining in a state of nonconceptualization, wouldn‘t one then be free of the pathological effects of concepts?

    Such a state is not unknown in Indian materials, which mention the peculiar mental condition of the enlightened person who remains unconscious but can still think.

    Buswell 1987: 331 f

SHÉNHUÌ THE MASTERMIND

But all this is Chán ideology, that is, they are not so much religious beliefs as they are political dogmas (or tenets of religious politics). Shénhuì played prophet with projecting Huìnéng as the Buddha‘s equal as his mouthpiece, and the Platform Sutra as his testament. For, Shénhuì wished to destroy the "Northern School" by hinayanizing it: he claimed that Shénhuì taught the "gradual method" to enlightenment!

Shénhuì‘s bad karma was immediate, as it were: he was exiled on suspicions of being a security threat to the empire (his public rallies were attracting large crowds), or on account of the reactions of East Mountain Chán sympathisers, or very likely for both reasons. Very likely, Shénhuì would have failed in his intrigue if Shénxiù‘s "Northern" (that is, the East Mountain) had survived the turmoil of religious politics in the north.

We have no record that Shénxiù or any East Mountain exponent ever rebutted or even mentioned Shénhuì‘s charges. It is possible that during Shénhuì‘s own lifetime, his ravings against the north were only appreciated by his immediate audience. Or, that the northern Chán practitioners, well supported by the imperial court, especially the empress Wǔ Zétiān, did not deign to be embroiled in such low intriques. Indeed, part of Shénhuì‘s reason for attacking the East Mountain school could well be that he was utterly jealous of the glorious imperial patronage that it was receiving. After the death of the Chief of Imperial Censors, Lúyì, Shénhuì‘s chief antagonist at court), his fortune brightened when, through selling ordination certificates, he raised a significantly great sum of money for the royal funds to end the Ān Lùshān rebellion. Shénhuì was richly rewarded by the emperor by being reinstated to his Hézé temple, and given a new residence and titles. However, in his lifetime, he was not really successful in destroying the East Mountain school. But his ideas were becoming very popular, thanks to imperial patronage (again).

The sentiments of Liáng Sù (梁肅 753-793), a leading Tiāntái lay Buddhist and prose master of Sòng reflects the reality of the times (and our times, too):

    Nowadays, few men have the true faith. The followers of Ch‘an path go so far as to teach the people that there is neither Buddha nor Dharma, and that neither evil nor goodness has any significance. When they teach the doctrines to average people, or those below average, they are believed by all those who live in worldly desires. Such ideas are accepted as great truths which sound pleasing to the ear. And the people are attracted to them like moths in the night are drawn to their death in the burning candle… Such doctrines are as damaging and dangerous as Māra and the ancient heretics themselves.

    Liang Su, "On the Tiantai School," Tángwéncuì 唐文粹 §61)

CONCLUSIONS

JAN Yun-hua, in his paper,218 collects related materials from twenty-three sources (ie, twelve epigraphical, six historical and five literary), including some recent discoveries, and re-examines them in the light of recent scholarship. The following conclusions are made:

  • The dispute of the seventh patriarchship is a logical and historical continuation of the early dispute on the sixth patriarchship.
  • The controversy of the seventh patriarch began with the claim of Pǔjì (651-739) and it was denounced by Shénhuì 神會 (684-758), but the denunciation failed to stop the claim at once. It was not until the mid-eighth century CE did the Hézé and Niútóu branches of Chán begin openly to make counter-claims of the seventh patriarch. It was towards the end of the eighth century that Shénhuì has finally declared by the imperial court as the seventh patriarch. Thereafter, all the sources dated in the ninth century unaminously recorded that the patriarch is Shénhuì. However, as the Hézé branch of Chán declined after the fall of the Táng empire, the historical disputes in the Chán School no longer attract scholars‘ attention.
  • The dispute produced a number of new ideas or qualifications for the transmission of religious leadership, and these were new development in Buddhist as well as in Chinese history.
  • The idea of patriarchship in Chán Buddhism did not come from the Indian Buddhist tradition, but was an adaptation and transformation of the ancient Chinese way in recording family lineage. The word zong (宗) originally did not have the meaning of "school" or "sect," but referred to "ancestor(s)," (zǔ 祖). The Chán monks borrowed this secular Chinese usage of family lineage and transformed it into a sacred lineage of religious transmission, thus a teacher-disciple relationship replaced the father-son lineage. The blood connection was hence transformed into a holytruth connection. This transformation returned to the Chinese tradition again when the NeoConfucian orthodoxy and the Daoist school adopted the usage in recording their religious lineage, hence the Chán idea of patriarchship had a larger sphere of influence on Chinese culture.

The legendary "battle" between ShĂ©nxiu and HuinĂ©ng is likely to have been just that—a ChĂĄn legend, a Zen tale, a complete fabrication. Although this elaborate ChĂĄn allegory has outlived its original usefulness, it still has something to say to contemporary ChĂĄn students. Even if no verses were ever written on HĂłngrěn‘s monastery wall or that the Platform Sutra are not the words of HuinĂ©ng, the ChĂĄn students of today generally value ChĂĄn teachings more than its colourful history.

The real Platform Sutra (壇經)

THE MÒGĀO-CAVES TEXTS

It might be said that Shénhuì had programmed the Platform Sutra for the sole purpose of destroying the Shénxiù‘s school. Very likely, Shénhuì would have failed in his intrigue if the "Northern" (that is, the East Mountain) school of Shénxiù had survived the turmoil of religious politics in the north. However, in troubled times, someone or some group hid a cache of valuable ancient texts of their times in the walled-up Mògāo caves (Mògāo kū 莫高窟) of Dūnhuáng. Mògāo Caves, or Mògāo Grottoes (Mògāo kū 莫高窟), also known as the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas or, simply, Dūnhuáng Caves, form a system of 492 temples 25 km southeast of the centre of Dūnhuáng, an oasis town strategically located at a religious and cultural crossroads on the Silk Road, in Chinese Central Asia west of Xi‘an, a former capital of China, in Gansu province, on the edge of the Taklamakan Desert.

The Mògāo Caves are the best known of the Chinese Buddhist grottoes, which along with Longmen Grottoes and Yungang Grottoes, are the three most famous ancient sculptural sites of China.219 The caves contain some of the finest examples of Buddhist art spanning a period of 1,000 years and covering 45,000 square meters of frescos, 2,415 painted statues and five wooden-structured caves. Construction of the Buddhist cave shrines began in 366 CE as repositories of scriptures and art. Besides priceless paintings, sculptures, the Mogao caves housed some 50,000 Buddhist scriptures, historical documents, textiles, and other relics that stunned the world in the early 1900s.

In 1908, Paul Pelliot, a French Sinologist and explorer of Central Asia, discovered a huge cache of ancient texts in Cave 16 of the Mògāo Caves in Dūnhuáng. These manuscripts were hand-written in many languages, including Chinese, Tibetan and Uighur, and had been hidden away safely during a period of civil unrest, and then left undisturbed for centuries after. The manuscripts were removed by Paul Pelliot and Aurel Stein, and divided between them the British Library in London and the Bibliothèque nationale in Paris, with smaller holdings in Beijing, Petrograd (St Petersburg, USSR) and Copenhagen.

Amongst the Dūnhuáng manuscripts walled up in the cave in the 9th century are found the earliest examples of Chinese movable-type printing, as well as the earliest versions of many Buddhist texts, making them an invaluable source for the history of Buddhism in China, India and Tibet. One of these rare finds is the Platform Sutra.

THE PLATFORM SUTRA IS NOT A SUTRA

The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch Liùzǔ tán jīng 六祖壇經, or fully 南宗頓教最上大乘摩訶般若波羅蜜經六祖惠能大師於韶州大梵寺施法壇經, which is fully translated as follows:

    南宗頓教 nánzōng dùnjiào
    最上大乘 zuìshàng dàchéng
    摩訶般若波羅蜜經 mōhē bōruò bōluómì jīng
    六祖惠能大師 lìuzŭ huìnéng dàshī
    於韶州大梵寺施法 sháozhōu dàfànsì shīfá
    壇經 tán jīng

    The Southern School Sudden Enlightenment
    Foremost Teaching Mahāyāna
    Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch Huìnéng, the Great Master,
    Dharma taught at the Shaozhou Dafan Temple
    Platform Sutra.

This was the title of the Dūnhuáng text brought back by the Japanese monk Ennin (圓仁 or 円仁, 793/794- 864) in 847.

The sutra is often simply referred to as the Platform Sutra (Tán jīng 壇經). It was probably originally composed late in the 8th century (around 780), but the text as we have it today was probably composed around 820. The original text had been greatly revised and greatly enlarged by interpolations throughout the ages so that the current edition (on which the English translation was based) is about twice the length of the oldest text preserved in the Dūnhuáng caves and brought to the British Museum by Aurel Stein in 1907. The Dūnhuáng version, from its calligraphic style, was probably composed between 830 and 860.225 This earliest text is now accessible in the Taishō 48.2007, and also in Suzuki‘s edition of 1934.

An important explanation for this wild variation in the sizes and contents of the Platform Sutras is that, soon after Shénhuì‘s time, the various Chán schools, each bowdlerized the text as they saw fit. Each group claimed that their version was the authentic one to legitimize their own school.

This earliest Chinese text of the Platform Sutra extant contains about 11,000 Chinese characters. The current edition contains about 22,000 characters. So, about half of the current edition of the Platform Sutra represents the interpolations and additions of the last ten centuries. Internal evidence shows that even the oldest Tunhuang text is made up of two parts, the second half being apparently a later addition.

    The lack of a text in any earlier form, the haziness surrounding Fa-hai, the alleged compiler, the similarity of many parts of the sermon to Shen-hui‘s works, the fact that no mention of the Platform Sutra is found among the works of Shen-hui, the lack of any reliable information concerning the Ta-fan Temple where Hui-neng‘s sermons are said to have been delivered, all contribute to the conviction that the Platform Sutra was purely a product of Shen-hui‘s school.

    Yampolsky 1967: 97

Yampolsky adds that there are two sources that support the idea that an original version of the Platform Sutra existed, and that it was compiled shortly after Huìnéng‘s death. The first source is from the Jǐngdé chuándēng lù 景德傳燈錄 (The Jingde Record of Transmission of the Lamp), which contains the sayings of Nányáng Huìzhōng (南陽慧中 d 775), a disciple of the sixth patriarch, in which he laments the conditions in which the Platform Sutra then exists. He complained that the work had been vulgarized, changed and added to, so that the original instruction and intention had been distorted, that this had created confusion among students who came later, and that as such the teaching was facing destruction.

The second source is quoted by advocates of an early version of the Platform Sutra is an inscription by Wéi Chùhòu 韋處厚 (773-828) for Éhú dàyì 鵝湖大義 (745-818), a pupil of Mǎzǔ. The text contains a passage that characterized four different branches of Chán: the Northern School, the Southern School, the Oxhead School, and the teaching of Mǎzǔ Daoyi. The passage on Shénhuì probably referred to the fact that there came a point where his pupils distorted the original work, and made it into a status symbol.

From all this, it is clear that although the Platform Sutra is called a jīng 經, a "classic"—it is not a sutra in the proper sense of the word, at least as referring to an early Buddhist text. However, the early Mahāyāna texts are also called sūtra although they were written very much after the Buddha‘s passing. The Platform Sutra is unique in the sense that, although not a traditional or authentic sutra, it is so called and accepted so generally. This occurred because of the elaborate promotion given to it by Shénhuì and the events of his time. He had fully exploited the ambiguity of the Chinese term, jīng 經.


POLITICS OF ENLIGHTENMENT

Chán politics

Academic studies of the controversy between the Northern and Southern Schools reveal many problems with the traditional accounts of both the schools. Scholars have good reason to doubt that the two protagonists in the "mind-verse" contest, Shénxiù and Huìnéng, ever resided together at Hóngrěn‘s monastery on Dōngshān 東山 (East Mountain) at the same time. Furthermore, the reality is that both the Northern School and the Southern School held the same subitist view on practice and enlightenment. In fact, the Southern School literature written during less heated moments openly acknowledges the need to spend time preparing oneself for the moment of "sudden" enlightenment.

Ironically, during the "Council of Lhasa," which was held in Samyes Ling in Tibet, in 792-794 to debate the subitist and gradualist positions, it was Kamala,ṥīla, an Indian monk,228 who defended the gradualist position, while a Northern Chán School monk, Huashang Mohoyen or Heshang Moheyan,229 who held the subitist position. Records of the nature of the debate and who won were uncertain. According to Tibetan accounts, Mohoyen lost the debate and was banished, and this marked the crucial point where Tibetan Buddhism began to be permanently aligned to Indian Mahāyāna. In China, the controversy seemed to have been politically motivated. Both Shénxiù and Huìnéng lived out their last days peacefully, each enjoying great success. Shénxiù was particularly prominent at the court of the infamous empress Wǔ of the Táng dynasty, and was one of only three Buddhist monks to have a biography in official court records.

However, in 732, some 24 years after Shénxiù‘s death, a disciple of Huìnéng named Hézé Shénhuì 荷澤神會 (684-758),230 denounced Shénxiù‘s lineage for teaching a gradualist position, and claimed that his own teacher, Huìnéng, had received and maintained the true teaching of sudden enlightenment. Although he received a sympathetic hearing from some court officials, it is said that the Northern School 北宗231 had some powerful allies in court who convinced the emperor to have Shénhuì exiled in 753.

As we have noted, Shénhuì and his school might well have ended in obscurity, if not for the An Lushan Rebellion. Shénhuì was able to raise incense money through his own ordination campaigns, selling ordination certificates and giving the money to the authorities. The impressed emperor reinstated Shénhuì.

Ironically, Shénhuì had made the very same accusation of Shénxiù, that he had sold out the true Dharma for 30 pieces of silver! During the more settled and prosperous evening of his life, Shénhuì built up his school, and ended his extreme non-dualistic sudden enlightenment polemics, and acknowledged the need for some preparation and practice leading up to the awakening experience.

Legitimization through lineage

Through Chán history after Huìnéng, Shénhuì‘s rhetoric of sudden enlightenment became the norm thereafter, so that anyone who held a gradualist view might be accused of holding to a false dualism. In addition, Shénhuì‘s lineage succeeded in having the mantle of the "sixth patriarch" officially transferred from Shénxiù to their own progenitor Huìnéng, from whom all Chán priests thenceforth trace their lineage.

Neither the Northern nor the Southern School survived the Huìchāng persecution of Buddhism (Huì- chāng fèifó 會昌廢佛) in 845. Of the early Chán schools, only the Hóngzhōu 洪州 school survived this "Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution." As such, the later Chán schools inevitably have to trace their ancestry to Huìnéng through the Hóngzhōu school. Hence, the various forms of classical Chán adhered to "sudden awakening" teaching. There were actually two Hóngzhōu lines, both coming down directly from Huìnéng, one evolving into the Línjì school and the other into the Cáodòng school. The first Hóngzhōu line evolved into the Línjì 臨濟 (Jap: Rinzai Zen) school, which traced its lineage thus:

    Nányuè Huáiràng 南嶽懷讓 (677-744)



    Mǎzǔ Dàoyī 馬祖道一 (709-788)



    Bǎizhàng Huáihǎi 百丈懷海 (720-824)



    Huángbò Xīyùn 黄檗希運 (d c 850)



    Línjì Yìxuán 臨濟義玄 (d 867)


The second Hóngzhōu line evolved into the Cáodòng 曹洞 school (Jap: Sōtō Zen), which traced its lineage thus:

    Qīngyuán Xíngsī 青原行思 (c 660-740)



    Shítóu Xīqiān 石頭希遷 (700-790)



    Cáoshān Bĕnjì 曹山本寂 (840-901)



    Dòngshān Liángjiè 洞山良价 (807-869)


Now we come to an interesting question: Why did Chán regard a patriarchal lineage with such significance? Unlike the other major schools of East Asian Buddhism that legitimized their existence and teachings by centering themselves around a particular Mahyna text, the Chán tradition, in rejecting the scriptures as final authority,238 had to resort to other means of legitimization of its authenticity, that is, the lineage of patriarchs. This was clearly the case for Chán in 7th-8th century China: this is the first reason, but we will examine the second, more important, reason after this.

    The transmission histories, like all other Ch‘an works, were intended to function as catalysts for the enlightenment of the readers by exposing them to examples of true religiosity and perfected behavior. In addition to this lofty goal, these texts had two other purposes of a propagandistic and quasi-historical nature: (1) to glorify the sages of the past and thereby legitimize the status of their living disciples and (2) to rationalize the origins and existence of the Ch‘an School itself. The latter is of greater importance here, since one of the tasks undertaken by the Northern School239 was to establish Ch‘an as a legitimate—in its own eyes, the legitimate—school of Chinese Buddhism. This task was rendered difficult by the fact that Ch‘an lacked any single underlying scriptural tradition from which it could trace its descent. Unlike the Tien-t‘ai School, for example, which used the Lotus Sutra, or the Pure Land School, which revered the three Pure Land scriptures, the Ch‘an School did not have any specific canon that might provide the answers to its particular religious dilemmas. On the contrary, the very existence of Ch‘an was based on a reaction against the excessive reliance on scriptural study, and the school seems to have purposely avoided identification with any specific scriptural tradition. Instead, Ch‘an presented itself as a "separate transmission outside the teachings" and cautioned its followers "Do not rely on words!" True, as a meditation school, Ch‘an grew out of centuries of Chinese Buddhist religious practice, but as a school, nonetheless, it had to establish its own identity separate from—and yet somehow superior, in its own terms, to— the other Chinese Schools. It did this by formulating the "transmission of the lamp" theory.

    McRae 1986:75 f

We have briefly examined China‘s only empress Wǔ Zétiān‘s political use of Buddhism, and the evangelical Shénhuì‘s creation of the Huìnéng myth to promote the Southern School. The two stories are actually intimately related, or more exactly, that the Eastern Mountain School (or "Northern School" to Shénhuì and his followers) was well-favoured by Wǔ Zétiān was the main prod for Shénhuì to denounce Shénxiù. Wǔ Zétiān was an amoral ruler, but it was advantageous to be patronized by her rather than otherwise. Shénhuì must have been righteously angered by such an unholy affair, and yet it was difficult not to envy Shénxiù and the Eastern Mountain lineage and their elevated "metropolitan" status.

Shénhuì vehemently denounced Shénxiù being lionized by Wǔ Zétiān, China‘s most powerful woman known for her ruthlessness against her enemies and excesses in worldly pleasures. Above all, she was a woman who had usurped the dragon throne—and China‘s dragon had always been male. But if we take a second careful look at Shénhuì, his personality, methods and teachings reveal that he was ruthless to his enemies and indulged in worldly excesses—he vehemently denounced Shénxiù beyond the spirituality and decorum of monkish or priestly training. He immediately responded to the court‘s need of war funds, sold a prodigious number of ordination certificates and gave the collection to the emperor, knowing fully that he would benefit from it. In short, Shénhuì was envious of Shénxiù and the East Mountain School, and was in fact trying to emulate, if not, outdo them. And how did Shénhuì try to do this?

The spirit of the Dharma

By now, we have a good idea that we must not always believe what we read in a ChĂĄn or Zen text. Another way of putting it is that a ChĂĄn text often separates the boys from the men, as it were. If you take the story or teaching literally, you are probably still a ?boy? (or ?girl?), but if you read the text and then slap your teacher, then you are a true ChĂĄn ?man? (or ?woman?). The question now is: are you taking me here literally or otherwise?

Good Dharma teachers and writers use words very freely so that we, the hearers and readers, may be free from them, and read between the lines. The purpose of the teacher‘s talking is to lessen mental noise, so that we can let go of harping on the past or running into the future. When enough has been said, the teacher‘s silence is so powerful that we are enveloped in it and permeate ourselves with our own inner stillness.

Dharma masters often have little respect for history. After all, what is history? It is mostly the records of the lives and contributions of the powerful, or how they viewed the past. That being the case, it does not really matter when exactly it was that Bodhidharma arrived in China, or if he was actually a real person.

From the very start, the different Chán schools had been creating their own Bodhidharmas, and telling amazing stories about him—for their own good, that is, to fit their own view of Buddhist sagehood. McRae notes how this dynamic process continues even into our own times:

    A 1992 Taiwanese movie account of Bodhidharma‘s life shows him not only sitting rock-solid in meditation—a full nine years without moving a muscle!—but also as a miraculously gifted martial artist catching arrows in his teeth and flying through the air, his legs churning in the manner of Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon! The modern martial arts cinema tradition has remade the image of Bodhidharma according to its own needs, just as the medieval China tradition did. The results are different, but the process is basically unchanged.

    McRae 2003: 27

In the Dharma-inspired mind, there is no one image of the Buddha, or Bodhidharma, or the patriarchs, or the sutras, that is right. It depends on what your spiritual needs are. But there is a sacred system in this apparent free-for-all, that is, the mind-training that an accomplished teacher is capable of giving to a ready pupil. It is a common fact that any traditional sutra, in the hands or mouth of a teacher presents it in his own way: he interprets the text or puts the text into context. A sutra has no life of its own—if that were so, anyone just reading it would awaken.

A sutra is like a musical score of a masterly composition, and a good teacher is its virtuoso performer. Each performer has his own style, but the music is the same: it plays by the score. In the right ambience and the right frame of the listener‘s mind, by merely listening to the well-played music, his mind calms down to such a clarity that he is liberated from dullness into a creative openness.


LÌDÀI FǍBǍO JÌ (歷代法寶記 )

Dūnhuáng-cave text

The Lìdài fǎbǎo jì 歷代法寶記 (T2075.179) is an early Chán (c780) hagiographical (but apocryphal) work, the only extant relic of the obscure Băotáng Temple school (Bǎotáng sì zōng 保唐寺宗) 243 of Sìchuān 四川 that combined a sectarian history of Buddhism and Chán in China with an account of the 8th -century Chán master Wúzhù 無住 (714-774) centred in the wild Sichuan frontier of southwest China. It consists of a chronologically arranged series of biographies followed by a collection of dialogues and lectures. The Lìdài fǎbǎo jì was discovered in the early 20th century in the Mògāo caves at the Silk Road oasis of Dūnhuáng in northwestern China. The discovery of the Dūnhuáng manuscripts has been compared with the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, as these documents have radically changed our understanding of medieval China and east Asian Buddhism.

Sinologist Wendi Adamek’s The Mystique of Transmission (2007) is not only its first English translation, but is a close reading of the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì. Adamek, here and in her related writings, shows how the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì advances its claims for the supremacy of the Băotáng school by attempting to appropriate symbols of legitimacy valid in both an "old order" and an emerging "new order." The two orders are heuristically characterized as the centrifugal force of the Táng imperial household and aristocratic elites, and the scholastic Buddhist establishments of Cháng‘ān and Luòyáng, versus the increasingly autonomous provincial military and administrative elites associated with "naturalist" Southern Chán Buddhism. While the biographies of the first half of the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì reveal an anachronistic attachment to symbols of idealized Buddhist Imperial cooperation, the latter half of the text advocates an extreme interpretation of "Southern" Chán, propounding an antinomian and minimalist doctrine. In the writings of Shénhuì (神會 684-758), we see the transmission of the monastic robe serving as a tension both the "Southern" mythology of unbroken mind to mind transmission and a notion of lineage and legitimacy after the model of the imperial ancestor cult.

Adamek compares the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì with other sources from the 4th through 8th centuries, chronicling changes in the doctrines and practices involved in transmitting medieval Chinese Buddhist teachings. While she is concerned with familiar Chán themes like patriarchal genealogies and the ideology of sudden awakening, Adamek also highlights aspects that make the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì distinctive: formless practice, the inclusion of female practitioners, the influence of Daoist metaphysics, and connections with early Tibetan Buddhism.

A text of thoughtless purity

Wǔ Zétiān‘s "material Buddhism" was the extension of herself over her empire beyond political presence—she tried to be Empress and Buddha. Through Buddhism, her matriarchal hold on China was both secular and religious: her power extended over both this life and the future of her subjects, as it were. The line that divided the secular and the religious was blurred or removed under Wǔ. Understandably, Wǔ‘s successes would inspire others, and indeed they did. A whole Chinese text—Lìdài fǎbǎo245 jì 代法寶記—was inspired by Wǔ Zétiān‘s amoralistic apotheosis. The Lìdài fǎbǎo jì was composed near Chéngdū by an anonymous disciple or disciples of the Băotáng founder, Wúzhù. Wúzhù himself claimed descent from the charismatic Korean Chán master Wú- xiàng 無相 (684-762), well known as the founder of the Jìngzhòng 淨衆 (Pure Assembly) sect. As YANAGIDA Seizan has shown, Băotáng was the most radical of the early Chán groups in Sìchuān. It extended Shénhuì‘s teaching of no-thought (wúniàn 無念) to entail the rejection of all forms of traditional Buddhist ethical precepts and practice.246 Băotáng, however, was only significant within the generation of Wúzhù‘s immediate disciples: it was essentially a Wúzhù cult, against which Chán stalwarts like Zōngmì fervently spoke against.

The Lìdài fǎbǎo jì was composed around 780, within living memory of Wǔ Zétiān‘s times (r 625-706). It is a work of self-promoting religious fiction, and was criticized even shortly after its appearance. The sharpest contemporary criticism was that found in the Běishān lù 北山錄 (Record of North Mountain) by Shénqīng 神淸 (d 814), who noted its sectarian agenda.248 In a more recent assessment, John McRae notes that amongst the texts of early Chán guilty of "patent fabrications and questionable attributions… the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì…is undoubtedly the most egregious of all." (1986: 11)

Shénhuì’s robe

One of the most frequent and strongest criticisms against the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì is its story of Bodhidharma‘s robe. According to the popular Huìnéng story, the robe verified his status as the sixth patriarch, but upon empress Wǔ‘s request, Huìnéng sent it to her in Luòyáng. The empress was said to have later presented it to the monk Zhisen, who claimed to be the seventh patriarch of the Băotáng school.

Through the story of Zhishen‘s encounter with the "mind-reader" Trepiṭaka, Zhishen was presented as finally outwitting Trepiṭaka with his (Zhishen‘s) manifestation of "no-thought," and so received the Bodhidharma‘s robe. Adamek explains:

    In order to understand why they would risk such an incredible story, we must understand that this kind of coup de théâtre was not unprecedented and had worked for another Chán dramaturge, namely, Shénhuì. We may also call the robe "Shénhuì‘s robe," for although Southern School claims hinge on Huìnéng‘s possession of Bodhidharma‘s robe, modern Chán scholars have shown that these claims refer back to the symbolic framework created by Shénhuì.

    Adamek 2000: 65

Shénhuì created a religious political structure of Chán patriarchy by fusing diverse historical and doctrinal sources to support his notion of an exclusive patriarchal succession in which only one patriarch in each generation received mind-to-mind transmission (that is, certification) of the true Dharma from the previous patriarch, going right back to the Buddha‘s transmission to Mahā Kāśyapa. Shénhuì claimed that the robe and the Dharma had been passed down through six generations to Huìnéng, thus:

Name Traditional Simplified Wade-Giles Pinyin Date
(1) Bodhidharma 菩提達摩 菩提达摩 P‘u-t‘i-ta-mo Pútídámó ~530
(2) Huìkě 慧可 none Hui-k‘o Huìkě (487-593)
(3) Sēngcàn 僧粲 none Seng Ts‘an Sēngcàn (d c606)
(4) Dàoxìn 道信 none Tao-hsin Dàoxìn (580-651)
(5) Huineng 慧能 none Hui-neng Huìnéng (638-713)


To fabricate his lineage and hagiographies of these six Chán ancestors, Shénhuì relied on two slightly different genealogies in the early 8th century "proto-Chán," that is, the Chuán fǎbǎo jì 傳法寶紀 (Chronicle of the Transmission of the Dharma-Jewel, T85.2838) and the Lèngqié shīzī jì 楞伽師資記 (Record of the Masters and Disciples of the Lankāvatāra Sūtra, T85.2837). The authors of these works had in turn been influenced by notions of patriarchal succession found in the late 7th-century epitaph for the monk Fărú 法如 (638-689), who with Shénxiù, were prominent disciples of Hóngrěn 弘忍. Fărú‘s epitaph is the earliest record we have on their claim to the lineage of the East Mountain (Dōngshān 東山), thus:

    Bodhidharma 菩提達摩 (d c530)



    Huìkě 慧可 (487-593)



    Sēngcàn 僧粲 (d c606)



    Dàoxìn 道信(580-651)



    Hóngrěn 弘忍 (601-674)


Versions of the Platform Sutra

Of the many stories of the robe-and-Dharma transmission from Hóngrěn to Huìnéng, the so called "Platform Sutra of the Six Patriarch" (Liùzǔ tán jīng 六祖壇經) is the version with which we are most familiar with today. A late version of the Platform Sutra was incorporated into the Jǐngdé chuándēng lù (1004), thus becoming the first Chán history to receive imperial sanction. But the earliest extant versions of the Platform Sutra itself, are Dūnhuáng manuscripts dating from about the same time as the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì (c780).

Adamek shows how the corresponding passages from the Platform Sutra and the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì, both illustrating the relative similarity of their accounts of Huìnéng‘s inheritance of the robe but their complete divergence regarding the transmission after Huìnéng. I have here arranged the two texts with the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì (probably slightly earlier) on the left and the Dunhuang Platform Sutra on the right, highlighting the divergences:

>
Lìdài fǎbǎo jì (T51.2075.182b13-16)
composed c780
Platform Sutra (Dunhuang S5475)
composed 830-860 (oldest parts, 780)


(A) [Transmission:] In the night [Huì- néng] was secretly summoned to [the Master‟s] room, and when they had spoken together for three days and tree nights, [Hóngrěn] entrusted [Huìnéng] with the Dharma and robe, [saying,] "You are to be the Great Master of this world, and thus I command you to depart quickly."


(A) [§9 Transmission:] "At midnight the Fifth Patriarch called me into the hall and expounded the Diamond Sūtra to me. Hearing it but once, I was immediately awakened, and that night I received the Dharma. None of the others knew anything about it. Then he transmitted to me the Dharma of Sudden Enlightenment and the robe, saying, „I make you the Sixth Patriarch. The robe is the proof and is to be handed down from generation to generation. My Dharma must be transmitted from mind to mind. You must make people awaken to themselves… If you stay here there are people who will harm you. You must leave at once.‟"


(B) [On his death-bed:] "Do not ask. After this, hardships will arise in great profusion. How often have I faced death on account of this robe? At Master [Dao]Xin‟s place it was stolen three times, at Master [Hong] Ren‟s place, it was stolen three times, and now at my place it has been stolen six times. But at least no one will steal this robe of mine, for a woman has taken it away. So don‟t ask me any more."


(B) [§49 On his death-bed:] "The robe may not be handed down. In case you do not trust in me, I shall recite the verses of the preceding five patriarchs, composed when they transmitted the robe and the Dharma. If you depend on the meaning of the verse of the First Patriarch, Bodhidharma, then there is no need to hand down the robe.


"A woman" was, of course, none other than the empress Wǔ, who had given the robe to Zhishen, Dharma ancestor, thrice removed (great-grandfather in the Dharma), of the Băotáng founder, Wúzhù. As noted by Adamek, "the genealogical implications are complicated by the fact that although Zhishen is actually a disciple of the fifth patriarch Hóngrěn, he receives Huìnéng‘s robe from the empress and passes it on to his disciple Chuji [Chǔjì 處寂, 669-736], who passes it on to Wuxiang [Wúxiàng 無相]." (2000:68) Also interesting is the fact that Shénhuì is more often mentioned in the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì than in the Platform Sutra, even though the Sutra was the standard version of the Southern School Chán transmission.

Wǔ Zétiān’s robe

To understand the significance of the phrase, "a woman," we must look at the Vajra,samādhi Sūtra (Jīngāng sānmèi jīng 金剛三昧經 T9.273), 254 another apocryphal work composed in Silla (one of the three kingdoms of early Korea) by Wŏnhyo 元曉 (Yuánxiǎo, 617-686)255 around 685. The text merges tathāgata,garbha and the teachings associated with the East Mountain School, rendered in sutra style, so that it was regarded as a translation of a lost Sanskrit original until the late 20th century.256 Although the Vajra,samādhi Sūtra was composed before or during the time of Wǔ Zétiān, it was still listed as "non-extant" in the Chinese canon produced under her auspices in 695, and yet it was widely known and widely accepted to be included in the Kāiyuán canon of 730.

The Vajra,samādhi Sūtra introduces a novel concept called "the robe of the tathāgatas [the Buddhas thus come]," thus:

    Although he does not go forth into homelessness (pravrajita) he is not longer part of the household. For this reason, while he does not wear the dharma-robes and neither observes the Prātimokṣa precepts [monk‘s disciplinary rules] nor participate in the Poṣada [fortnightly religious observance], he does not engage in personal licentiousness in his own mind and obtains the fruition of sainthood…Taeryŏk Bodhisattva remarked, "This is inconceivable! Even though such a person has not gone forth into homelessness, he cannot but have gone forth. Why is this? He has entered the domicile of nirvāṇa, where he dons the robe of the tathāgatas and sits on the bodhiseat (bodhimaṇḍa). Such a person should be worshipped respectfully even by śramaṇas."

    Buswell 1989: 220

The wearer of "the robe of the tathāgatas" is neither an exceptional person such as the super layman Vimala,kīrti, nor is he an exemplary monk who observes the precepts. For such a robe is really inconceivable; for, what does a Buddha-body wear? Adamek believes that

    that the mystique of legitimacy enveloping Shenhui/Huineng/Bodhidharma‘s robe is patterned after this inconceivable "robe of the tathāgatas." Furthermore, the kind of figure Shenhui promoted in the sixth patriarch Huineng embodies some of the same ambiguous qualities of the "one who has not gone forth and cannot but have gone forth"—to whom monks in ordinary Dharma robes should pay homage.

    Adamek 2000: 70

It should be remembered that in both Shénhuì‘s writings and the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì, Huìnéng is not ordained until after he has received the Dharma transmission from Hóngrěn, and even then does so only when an eminent monk wished to become his disciple. Based on such ideas, Wúzhù went on to devalue the activity of the ordinary śramaṇa. Understandably, Zōngmì criticized the Băotáng school precisely for antinomian habit of conferring the monastic robes on those without any evidence of Buddhist practice.258 Adamek gives a very insightful analysis of the real situation:

    I suggest that the appeal of the "one who has not gone forth and cannot have but gone forth" reflects a certain disenchantment with the garb of the ordinary monk, a disenchantment that followed the restoration of the Táng after the reign of Empress Wǔ, was given direction by the Emperor Xuánzōng, and was accelerated by the An Lushan rebellion. In order to understand the devaluation of the status of the ordinary monk in the late eighth century, I believe we must consider it as part of the critical response to Wǔ Zétiān‘s attempted fashioning of a new order of Buddhist elites. Therefore, let us now consider the Buddhist fashions for which the empress was most infamous."

    Adamek 2000:71

The empress Wǔ‘s other "Buddhist fashions" have been noted earlier, so they will only be briefly listed here. In 690, empress Wǔ introduced the conferring of the purple robe upon favoured priests. With this act, she usurped the position of the highest Buddhist office, that of the patriarch who was the only legitimate person to do so. Like the Buddha conferring the patriarchal robe to Kāśyapa, empress Wǔ now confers the purple robe to other priests. By proclaiming herself as Maitreya (with the blessings of the eminent priests), she was not only the secular empress, but also the religious overlord of a Buddha-land, taking over the role of Amitabha.

All such acts of Wǔ Zétiān were of course "scripturally" legitimate, that is, scripture-based in terms of the gospel according to Wúzhù and his cult as recorded in the apocryphal Lìdài fǎbǎo jì. Both Shénhuì and the Lìdài fǎbǎo jì referred to the robe received by Mahā Kāśyapa as "gold-embroidered, which is the usually Chinese description of Mahā Prajāpatī‘s gift to the sangha, but not of Shakyamuni transmission to Mahā Kāśyapa.

However, what is more relevant here is Mahā Prajāpatī’s gift of robes to the Buddha. In the more melodramatic Mahāyāna re-telling of the Mahā Prajāpatī story, she wandered into the assembly looking for a monk to accept the robes, but all refused—except Maitreya. Jonathan Silk comments, "This version, of course, which omits Mahākāśyapa completely, provides a direct link between Śākyamuni and Maitreya." (1994: 61). As Maitreya, empress Wǔ thus saw herself as the true "owner" of the patriarchal robes, which she therefore had the right to give to those she favoured.

One of Empress Wǔ‘s strongest support for legitimizing herself as a woman ruler comes from the Dàyún jīng 大雲經, which contains a prophecy that female deva (devī) Jìngguāng 淨光 would be reborn as a female Buddhist ruler, possibly arousing in her an unconscious defence mechanism of identification. 263 Another apocryphal text, the Pǔxián púsà shuōcǐ zhèngmíng jīng 普賢菩薩說此證明經 (Sutra on the Attestation Spoken by the Bodhisattva Samanta,bhadra) gives further support to Wǔ‘s rule in terms of an apocalyptic vision of the birth of a Buddhist kingdom in China. Samanta,bhadra appears in the text as an avenging angel and protective midwife, and in one place, he is called Mahā Prajāpatī.

Adamek fittingly gives an overview of such scriptural exploitation and manipulation:

    Perhaps fittingly, while weaving a symbol of scriptural prophecy to bestow on their empress, the cadre of monks captured not only a blushing Devī but also the more ambiguous shades of a willful Mahāprajāpatī and a punitive Samantabhadra. Although in the Dayun jing the Buddha praises "shame" as the Dharma robe of all beings, it is hubris for which Wǔ Zétiān is most consistently remembered by Chinese historians. Thus, the precedent she established of bestowing robes on monks became a dubious honor, resonant with the story of Mahāprajāpatī, locus classicus for the trope of the monk who refuses to give up his tattered robes and accept fine clothing from a wealthy lay devotee. Although Buddhist literature abounds with words of praise and evocations of merit for those who give good, clothing, bedding and medicine for the use of the Saṅgha, there was ambivalence towards laypersons who gave costly and personal gifts to individual monks.

    Adamek 2000: 76




CHÁN: A REAPPRAISAL

Chán too follows the gradual path

Is Chán/Zen Buddhism any different from other form of Chinese Buddhism? Is it really as unique as claims it to be—not relying on scripture, dedicated to hard work, being creative of beauty, and so on? Robert E Buswell, Jr, in his study of contemporary Korean Sŏn monastic life,266 observes, "Perhaps the most fundamental self-definition of the Zen school repeated ad infinitum in Western literature—so fundamental that it is often made to constitute a virtual root paradigm267 of the Zen tradition—is the famous four-line aphorism attributed to Bodhidharma, the Indian monk whom Zen tradition considers to be its founder" (1992: 217). Now we know it is an expression of the protean genius of the Chinese mind, so that nothing is too sacred to be sinicized. The first two lines seem to define Chán268 as "a special transmission outside the teachings, | do not depend on the written word." At face value, many teachers and writers depict Chán as radically bibliophobic and advocating that doctrinal learning has no place in Chán training. But is this view correct? Buswell speaks from his experience:

    Sŏn monastic life in modern Korea suggests not. Most Korean monks training in the meditating hall have extensive knowledge of Buddhist doctrine, ranging from basic "Hīnayāna" and Mahā- yāna sūtras, to theoretical treatises on Sŏn praxis and collections of Sŏn lore. Most begin their meditation training only after they were steeped in the basic teachings of Buddhism. … [A]s one monk told me, an infant must learn to crawl before it tries to walk, and so too must monks study before they begin to meditate.

    Buswell 1992:217

Buswell goes on to tell us that books on Theravada (such as vernacular translations of Pali texts) are just as popular reading as those on Chán. A monk who had been for several years serving as the catechist at Songgwang-sa (Cholla-namdo, South Korea) told Buswell that "the pragmatic quality of the Pali materials was especially appealing to meditators, as they did not find many practical instructions in their own Sŏn literature for dealing with the inevitable problems that can arise during meditation—lassitude, distraction, fantasizing" (1992: 218). So while meditators may not read while on retreat, they are clearly not ignorant of Buddhist doctrinal teachings.

Early Chán made much use of personal oral transmissions of teachings, especially through the use of koans, and which later became the central practice of the Línjì (Jap Rinzai) school. These koans were accompanied by anecdotes, most of which were compiled during the Sòng dynasty, and become one of the largest corpus of Chinese Buddhist writings.

    Any pretense Ch‘an may have still retained about being a teaching that ‗did not rely on words and letters‘ was hardly supportable given the rapid proliferation of such anthologies within different teaching lineages.

    The compilation of kung-an collections, with their distinctive language and style, illustrates the tendency in Sòng dynasty Ch‘an toward refined literary activity, which was termed "lettered Chan" (wen-tzu Ch‘an). These literary endeavors helped to bring Ch‘an into the mainstream of Chinese cultural life and also led to a fertile interchange between Ch‘an and secular belles lettres.

    Buswell 1987: 345

Only the later teachers of the Línjì (Jap: Rinzai) school took exception and rejected "lettered Chán," and even tried to burn the xylographs of the "Blue Cliff Record" to keep it out of circulation. But Chán Buddhism had taken a new direction from which it never turned back.

Chán monastics are just like other monastics

DOES CHÁN REALLY POINT DIRECTLY RO MAN‘S MIND?

The last two lines of "Bodhidharma‘s" quatrain apparently defines Chán as a "directly pointing to man’s mind, | seeing into our own nature and becoming Buddha." The claim of these two lines—that Chán is intent on awakening—and by extension, its monasteries and centres are formed to train people in such pursuits—is clearly not evident when we look at such institutions.

    While it is true that the meditation hall and the monks practicing there are the focus of much of the large monastery‘s activities, the majority of its residents spend no time in meditation, and may have no intention of even undertaking such training. Zen monastic life is broad enough to accommodate people of a variety of temperaments and interests—administrators, scholars, workers— offering them many different kinds of vocations.

    Buswell 1992: 218

A common wrong view—mostly held by scholars of Buddhism in the 20th century—of Buddhism in general, and of Chán-Zen in particular, is that Buddhists place great importance on transformative experience in religious practice, or that they take the goal of awakening seriously.272 From Buswell‘s life as a practising monk in the Songgwang-sa, his observations of the monks there—and Korean monks in general—suggest that "a disciplined life, not the transformative experience of enlightenment, is actually most crucial to the religion," and he adds,

    The Koreans (and the Chinese and Indian Buddhists before them) created such structured regimens for their monasteries because they recognized that few meditators would have much chance of progressing in their practice without them. In this endorsement of discipline over transformation, the Sŏn monks of Korea would find much in common with their Buddhist counterparts in Southeast Asia—or even with the Benedictines of France.

    Buswell 1992:219

For effective meditation training, the trainee (whether monastic or lay) is advised neither to read anything nor be involved in unnecessary work. Such instructions are clearly laid out in Theravada works, such as the Visuddhi,magga. The point is that when we meditate, we just meditate, directly watching the meditation object or cultivating mindfulness.

IS CHÁN REALLY ABOUT "SUDDEN ENLIGHTENMENT" (頓悟)?

Modern writings on Chán and Zen (mostly of the 20th century) mostly presume that enlightenment occurs suddenly, not as a gradual unfolding of true reality. For a Chán meditator, it seems, complete and sudden enlightenment would automatically, as it were, follow all religious cultivation. The tathāgatagarbha doctrine conceived all beings as being inherently enlightened buddhas. The Chán conception of "sudden enlightenment" (dùnwù 頓悟) effectively opened the doors of nirvana to not only the dedicated monastics, but also to the laity, that is, to anyone who followed the Chán teachings, or strictly speaking, to those who could be certified by a recognized Chán master. Chán enlightenment, in other words, could be ritually handed down from master to pupil, which is clearly different from the early Indian notion of bodhi. Buswell speaks of a popular "short-cut" to such a subitist enlightenment:

    Even a casual perusal of Korean Sŏn literature will reveal that there is much support within the Korean tradition for subitism. The technique of kanhwa Sŏn,276 virtually the only type of meditation used in contemporary Korean monasteries, is even termed a "shortcut" (kyŏngjŏl; Chin ching-chieh) to enlightenment because of its emphasis on generating an instantaneous awakening instead of developing a sequential series of practices. But when Korean meditation monks who are training in the kanhwa technique routinely admit that they expect it will take upwards of twenty years of full-time practice to make substantive progress in their practice, there seem to be valid grounds for questioning how subitist in practice the Sŏn tradition really is.

    Buswell 1992: 220; emphasis added, reparagraphed

CHÁN IS NOT ALL WORK

Another putative scholarly view of Chán is that it values manual labour, invoking Băizhàng‘s aphorism: "A day without work, a day without food". We now know that Bǎizhàng Huáihǎi (720-824) did not compose the "Pure Rules," but that it was only later attributed to him. In fact, the oldest extant piece of monastic code we have is Xuěfēng‘s Shīguīzhì 師 規制 (or Xuěfēng‘s Code"), a brief set of six rules compiled by Xuěfēng Yìcún 雪峰義存 (822-908), meant to give the essence of the traditional Vinaya. Rule 2 reads:

    藍田,長際兩莊,但逐年輪差了事僧,勾當始終供應,塔院常住供養當院僧徒等,切不得别議- 住持。

    The [supervision of] the two types of landed estates, the monastery‘s fields and [lands that are on] long-term [lease], is to be undertaken by monastic officials who will be rotated annually; all should be subject to service. The permanent property of the stūpa and the monastery has been donated to the monks of this monastery, and should on no account be taken elsewhere.

    TX119.486d-487b; tr Mario Poceski, "Xuefeng‘s Code," 2003: 55

This rule evidently shows that even during the late Táng period, even a Chán monastery needed careful administration and maintenance. The paradigmatic portrayal the sixth patriarch, Huìnéng as a monastery hand loses its romantic luster, when we consider it was logical that a large monastery in ancient China needed regular maintenance. Huìnéng was portrayed as an illiterate barbarian labourer from the southwest working in the monastery before his enlightenment. However, after becoming a seniour monk, like anyone of senior rank in a feudal society, he needed to do less manual work. However, it is easy to gave the wrong impression that regular and heavy work was a rule in such monasteries, as Buswell comments,

    But the emphasis on how unusual it was for a laborer such as Hui-neng to ascend the patriarchy suggests, to the contrary, that it was decidedly atypical for the Zen monks to work. One wonders to what extent this impression of Buddhist monasticism in Western literature has been subtly influenced by Christian models, where a life of labour was especially emblematic of the Cistercians.

    Buswell 1992: 220

As a rule, contemplative monks (especially Chán monks) do little, indeed any, work. If any work is done, it is done mindfully in connection with the meditation training. As already mentioned, Theravada works, such as the Visuddhi,magga, give clear instructions for the meditator not to be involved in reading, studying or physically working when he is meditating.281 If there is any work to be done, this would be limited to a certain appointed or appropriate time. Any study would be in the form of calm instructions on meditation, again at a certain appointed or appropriate time. The report that Buswell gives of a retreat period in a Korean monastery sounds familiarly like that of any Theravada or Buddhist retreat:

    Although every monk in the monastery has a specific duty during the retreat periods, the meditation monks are invariably given all the lightest jobs—serving as the verger of a small shrine (required to perform a cursory, five-minute service each day), for instance, or sweeping the meditation hall (twenty minutes). The most time-consuming work, such as tilling, planting, and working the fields or logging the forests, is done by hired laborers (who in the past would have been serfs awarded to the monasteries). The most odious of daily tasks crucial to running the monastery, such as preparing meals or cleaning the latrines, are carried out by unordained postulants. Most other important jobs are performed by the many monks, often new to their vocations, who occupy support positions in the monastery. After a monk has finished his postulancy and perhaps a few years of service to his home monastery, he could conceivably pass the rest of his life in the meditation hall, doing virtually no manual labour at all.

    Buswell 1992: 221

During the late 20th century, books like DT Suzuki‘s Zen and Japanese Culture (1970) presented the notion of a pervasive impact of Zen on indigenous aesthetic culture. We were told of Zen in areas ranging from landscape architecture to flower arrangements, the tea ceremony, haiku and other poetry, painting, Nō drama, even swordsmanship and martial arts.

    But the testimony of Korean Sŏn monastic life (as, I have been told, is also the case in modern Japanese Zen) offers little support for such a view. Korean Sŏn monasteries provide no institutionalized backing for such aesthetic activities and set aside no time in the daily schedule for monks to pursue them. The support staff is much too busy to have time for painting or poetry. The meditation monks are required to be totally devoted to their practice and would not even be allowed to use a brush for painting or calligraphy…. Monks drink a lot of tea, but there is none of the close attention to the details of the process that we are led to presume should be the case from the Japanese tea ceremony.

    Buswell 1992: 221

CHÁN IS NOT FOR EVERYONE

According to Hu Shih, Chán is merely one religious movement among others, and its development was an integral part of the political history of the Táng (Hu Shih 1953. According to DT Suzuki, however, Zen transcends history, and that historians are by definition reductionists (Suzuki 1953). During the 1950s and 1960s, Chán/Zen studies have multiplied, strongly influenced by Yanagida Seizan‘s historical works on early Chán (Shoki zenshū shisho no kenkyū, 1967). "These studies," Bernard Faure notes, "were also written in reaction against the appropriation of Zen by the counter-culture of the Sixties. The first task was to free Zen from its association, spread by Suzuki and his epigons,282 with the kind of ‗Oriental mysticism‘ denounced in France by [French literary critic] René Etiemble under the name of ‗Zaine.‘" (1993:72-74) Even respectable scholars such as William Theodore de Bary, describe Chán Buddhism as trying to develop forms of Buddhist praxis that would appeal to the special religious needs of the laity, "to bring salvation within the reach of ordinary people."284 This putative notion is encouraged by the common misunderstanding that the "sudden enlightenment" taught by Chán can be found in mundane experience without the need for any proper mindfulness or meditation practice as taught in early Buddhism.

Robert E Buswell, Jr, in a self-confession, admits to having a similar view earlier of Chán when he wrote on the historical development of Zen praxis:

    In an article on the evolution of the kanhwa technique, I claim that Zen sought to make "the summum bonum of Buddhism [viz enlightenment] readily accessible to ordinary people living active, engaged lives in the world, and not just to religious specialists ensconced in isolated mountain monasteries.". I describe Ta-hui, the Chinese systematizer of kanhwa Sŏn, as "embrac[ing] ordinary life as the ideal venue for Buddhist meditation practice.".

    To be fair to myself, I did qualify these statements by suggesting that Zen did not mean "to impugn cenobitic training," but was simply "countering a persistent bias in Buddhism toward celibate monastic life." [353]. But even if one accepts this caveat, the realities of modern Sŏn training in Korea testify that it is only within the specialized praxis institution of the meditation hall that anyone has much of a chance to succeed in kanhwa practice….what reasonable hope would there be for laypeople?

    The protestations of past masters to the contrary, Sŏn monastic life suggests that the technique of kanhwa Sŏn was never seriously intended for the laity, but instead targeted those few monks with the fortitude to endure many years of ascetic training in the meditation hall.

    Buswell 1992: 222

Buswell spent a year as a Thai monk of the reformist Dhammayut sect, two years studying Chán in Hongkong and two more as a monk in a Korean Sŏn monastery. He has noticed that the monastic training is both cases are very similar, that is, they "train within an extensive web of religious thought and practice, a web that reticulates with the historical, institutional, and cultural contexts of their centuries-old tradition.". He observes that

    These monks know that while Zen masters teach sudden enlightenment, they follow in their daily practice a rigidly scheduled regimen of training. They know that while Zen texts claim to eschew doctrinal understanding, monks are expected first to gain a solid grounding in Buddhist texts before starting meditation practice. They know that while the iconoclastic stories of the past Zen masters glorify seemingly antinomian behavior, monks are pledged to maintain a sober, disciplined lifestyle.

    Much of Western scholarship, by contrast, through seeking to interpret the classical literature of Zen in the abstract, divorced from such contexts, had promulgated a naïve view of the tradition as literally iconoclastic, bibliophobic, and antinomian.286 Zen monks are sophisticated enough in their understanding of their tradition to mediate in their daily lives these polarities—polarities of structure and transformation, discipline and iconoclasm, learning and bibliophobia, morality and antinomianism; it is time that our scholarship learn to do the same.

    Buswell 1992: 222 f


Chán Buddhism and the dead

John McRae, in his in-depth study, Seeing through Zen (2003), gives an interesting overview of how Chán was received by Chinese society at large. He suggests that traditional Chinese cultural views regarding death, afterlife and divinity are contrary to early Indian teachings because "the aim is to maintain an ongoing series of relationships between deceased ancestors and the living" (146). Therefore, the Chán patriarchal lineage evolved mostly into a "mortuary religion," which "provided a format for Buddhist practice that matched the pattern implied by Chinese funerary customs" (147 f).

It was a great idea, as it removed the restrictive barriers of a biological family, turning the sangha into a wall-less and gateless universal family. McRae insightfully observes:

    My contention is that Chán provided a format for Buddhist practice that matched the pattern implied by Chinese funerary customs. The starting point for this analysis is John Jorgenson‘s observation of the structural similarities between Chán lineage assertions of the eighth century and funerary practice, in which the organization of halls venerating Chán patriarchs was seen to resemble that of conventional ancestral halls. From a broader perspective, the proliferation of Chán lineages mimics that of conventional family genealogies, creating a parallel realm of filiation between living and dead. Indeed, where conventional genealogies are devoted individually to separate family groups, Chán "transmission of the lamp" texts create an entire universe of fictive relationships.

    McRae 2003: 148

Inspired by Daoism, the Chán masters saw the Buddha as a cosmic being, almost as the ancient brahmins viewed their Brahman. Though such a view, the notions of cosmic Buddhas and Bodhisattvas were easily accepted by Chinese Buddhism, which lies at the root of east Asian Buddhism. Although the Chán lineage begins with the Buddha, he was simply abandoned there as a mere foothold, as it were, for climbing to greater heights. The position of a teacher and refuge was effectively taken over by the ancestors of the lineage of Chán masters. In fact, the placing of the Buddha at the head of the lineage was more like a grand family trophy to legitimize the lineage.

On another level, the Chán genealogical network functioned as a means of exclusion. Scholars like Nancy Jay have noted that rituals (such as sacrifices) provide a means for effecting both in-group solidarity and exclusion of the other. This meeting of patriarchal lineage and sacrificial practice in agrarian societies served to support hierarchies of power that excluded women. McRae sees a similar parallel in

    that the Chán genealogical pattern effectively excluded—or, more to the point, worked to exclude —many types of religious practitioner from access to power within the Chinese Buddhist institution as a whole. Devotees of other styles of self-cultivation were marginalized or lumped together under the competing Tiāntái banner. Even the Pure Land tradition was forced to adopt a lineage system to justify its existence,289 and other rubrics for the understanding of Buddhist history were effaced by the genealogical model. And of course, women were nowhere to be seen in Sòng-dynasty Chán—at least not without being reconfigured as surrogate males.290 In other words, Chán provided Chinese Buddhists with a way of ordering their sacred lineage in a fashion that resembled other basic feature of Chinese society.

    McRae 2003:148


Why Chán masters are not awakened

In this study, I have always taken care to use the expression "Chán enlightenment" (and avoided the term "awakening") so that we do not confuse the Chán or Zen idea with the early Indian notion of awakening (bodhi). Indeed, it is germane to speak of Chán enlightenment—a fitting imagery reflecting the transmitting of the Chán lamp—as against early Indian Buddhist awakening, which is a matter of self-effort. Whatever our terminology, the two should not be misunderstood as referring to the same idea.

John McRae has noted the difficulty, even impossibility, of describing the nature of an exclusively experiential state, what when one has not attained them. We can at best compare descriptions of bodhi, as McRae carefully notes:

    Nevertheless, even without assuming that we could access the actual experiences of real individuals, it would be useful to compare the descriptions of bodhi in Indian philosophical texts with those of enlightenment experiences in Chán texts. Where the former describe the ultimate in terms of wisdom and transcendence, I suspect the Chinese texts tend to a greater emphasis on realizations of the interdependence of all things. Or one might examine whether the rhetoric of śūnyatā is used differently in Indian and Chinese texts, with the former being used to obliterate worldly distinctions, and the latter being used in effect to reify them. (The "originary enlightenment" theories of medieval Japanese Buddhism seem to fit this latter case.)

    McRae 2003:150

Mahāyāna enlightenment and Hīnayāna awakening are literally and spiritually worlds apart. The two should not confound nor conflate the two. Any Chán priest who claims to be "suddenly" enlightened and place himself on the same level as the Buddha (indirectly claiming supreme awakening), could be said to be guilty of an offence entailing defeat (pārājika), that is, automatically falling from the state of monkhood or nunhood.

However, no such offence is entailed if we do not equate any terms of Chán enlightenment (wúwéi, satori, etc) with the early Buddhist conception of bodhi, etc.293 Since Chan and other forms of Chinese Buddhism and East Asian Buddhisms are effectively different Buddhist religions in their own right, there is no problem of their transgressing the monastic rules of early Buddhism. But this is merely a technical point, which would only interest the traditional monastic and practitioner.

Chan Buddhism is changing to stay relevant in our own times. Chan monastics are aware, after a century of open critique in the light of what might be called "open" Buddhism—a holistic and interdisciplinary study and practice of Buddhism—that Chan has become more Chinese (or Japanese, or Korean) than Buddhist. Such a bent may serve well in implementing a nationalist state ideology but it may fall back into a recidivist Chan of the 8th century China. Chan Buddhism adapted well to Chinese society, and it will surely well adapt to our contemporary world. For this, Chan will need to re-chart its course by reorientating itself to the north star that is early Buddhism. For this reason, for example, the serious Chan meditators of all traditions in our times at least never fail at least to make the early Buddhist texts a part of their compulsory reading. We need not throw out the bath-water along with the baby, especially when the baby has the potential of maturing into a wise adult, that is, carries the Buddha-seed in him.

Javasolt irodalom és forråsok


1. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daruma_doll & http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okiagari-koboshi.
2. Alan W Watts, The Way of Zen. Pelican Books, 1962: 106.
3. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yi_Jin_Jing.
4. H Dumoulin, Zen Buddhism: A History vol 1: India and China, 2005: 85; Welter, "The disputed place of ‗a
special transmission outside the scriptures‘ in Ch‘an" 1996, "Mahākāṥyapa‘s smile" 2000.
5. Most trs take wénzì (文字) as a dvandva ("words and letters"), but the more common usage is as karmadharaya (descriptive cpd), which I follow here.
6. This is the position, eg of Heinrich Dumoulin, Zen Buddhism, 1988: 85, following the works of Japanese Rinzai scholars like FURUTA Shōkin and YANAGIDA Seizan.
7. More fully, Yuánzhōu yángqí fānghuì chánshī 袁州楊歧方會禪師, or in brief, Huì chánshī 會禪師. See also Miura, Zen Dust 1966: 228-230; Suzuki, Essays 1 1927: 176; Welter 2000: 77-80.
8. The Zǔtíngshìyuàn is a record of masters associated with the Yúnmén lineage. The quatrain was attr to Bodhidharma in two places by Huai, in ch 5 (TX64.1261.377b & 379a). See Miura, Zen Dust 1966: 228-230; Suzuki, Essays 1 1927: 176; Foulk, "Controversies concerning the ‗separate transmission‘," 1999: 265 f; Welter, "MahāKāśyapa‘s smile" 2000: 77-80.
9. One of the earliest eminent monks from Goguryeo or Koguryo (5th-6th cent) who travelled in China and lived there for a lengthy period, and where he studied Sānlún 三論 and Huáyán 華嚴 before returning home. (Xù gāosēng zhuàn 續高僧傳 T 2060.50.425c25, Gāosēng zhuàn 高僧傳 T 2059.50.351b25) (based on AC Muller).
10. Wuyue was a small but significant kingdom that covered the area of modern Jiāngsū shěng 江蘇省 and Zhè-jiāng shěng 浙江省. It was ruled over by Qiánliú 錢鏐 (902-931), his son and three grandsons for over 70 years, the longest surviving of all the states of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period Wǔcháo shíguó 五朝十國(五朝十国). Qian Liu started as a common soldier but rose to become an able and shrewd Táng military governor, and died at 80, the longest lived ruler of the period. His successsors wisely gave up expansionism, and focussed on building a network of commercial, diplomatic and cultural relations which enriched the kingdom and ensured its survival despite its small size and relatively limited natural sources. See Cambridge Ency of China, 1991: 175.
11. Even when he did try to explain his position, he was perfunctory and philosophical, eg "When the actualization of enlightenment (shǐjué 始覺) merges with inherent enlightenment (běnjué 本覺), then this is called ‗Buddha‘" (Dahui pǔjué chánshī pǔshuō 大慧普覺禪師普說 TX5.466b2-7; see also Dàhuì yǔlù, T47.888a12-18; Ishii, Sōdai zenshū, 2000: 343; cf Dàhuì yǔlù, T47.878b27-c3 for parallel passage without criticism of silent illumination). See Schlütter 2000:113, 116-126.
12. See Dānxiá Zǐchún chánshī yǔlù 丹霞子淳禪師語錄.
13. T2076.51.196-467, completed in 1004 (1st year of Jǐngdé 景德, Sòng dynasty). He was a mid-Koryō period monk who built the Heungwangsa 興王寺 (in ancient Korea). The work has 2 prefaces, one by Yángyì 楊億 (1004, Sòng dynasty, T2035-402c.23) 14. Orig from Jìzhōu 冀州 (Hébĕi 河北), and a Dharma successor of Shǒushān Shěngniàn 首山省念 (also pronounced Xĭngniàn) (926-993), Guisheng is the 5th generation after Línjì (Fózǔ lìdài tōngzǎi 佛祖歷代通載 T2036.49.482a20). See Taigen Dan Leighton & S Okumura (tr), Dogen’s Pure Standards for the Zen Community,
15. 1996: 139. http://www.ancientdragon.org/dharma/articles/sacred_fools_and_monastic_rules#f6.
16. The Gateless Gate (Wmén’gun 無門關; Jap Mumonkan) is a collection of 48 koan anecdotes compiled by the Chinese Chán master Wmén Huìkāi 無門慧開 (1183-1260) and published in 1229. These are encounters between various well-known Chinese Chán figures highlighting a decisive moment in their teaching. These condensed episodes are each accompanied by a short comment and poem by Hui-k‘ai himself. The whole Wúménguān can be downloaded from http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/zen/mumonkan.htm
17. The Gateless Gate (Wúménguān 無門關, Jap Mumonkan) is a collection of 48 Chán koans compiled in the early 13th century by the Chinese Chán master Wmén Huìkāi (無門慧開) (1183-1260). See http://www.sacredtexts.com/bud/zen/mumonkan.htm. (T2005.48.292c-299c) 52 rúhé shì fó 如何是佛 has the senses of "What is Buddha?" and "How to be Buddha?"
18. See Kenneth Ch‘en, Buddhism in China, 1964: 362. For Eng tr, see http://www.terebess.hu/english/chuangtzu2.html#22; for Chin text (bilingual format), see http://chinese.dsturgeon.net/text.pl?node=2712&if=en), http://www.cnd.org/Classics/Philosophers/Zhuang_Zi/22.hz8.html, http://www.chinapage.com/philosophy/zhuangzi/zhuangzi-text.htm
19. Buswell, eg, in is The Zen Monastic Experience, confesses, "From what little reading I had done, I was not much impressed with Zen, and in fact even today, after practicing Sŏn for some fifteen years, I still see myself as something of a closet Hīnayānist." (1992: 18)
20. These discourse records are those of Chán masters who flourished from the 10th cent onwards. Early examples incl Yúnmén Kuāngzhēn chánshī guǎnglù (雲門匡眞禪師廣錄 T47.544c-576c), Fǎyǎn Wényì (法眼文益 885-958) (T47.588a-594a); Fényáng Shànzhāo (汾陽善昭 947-1024) (T47.594-629c), Yángqí Fānghuì (楊岐方會 993-1046) (T47.640a-646a), & Hénglóng Huìnán (横龍慧南 1002-1069) (T47.629c-636b).
21. The oldest reliable and datable text we have on this is the Zǔtáng jí ("Collection From the Patriarchs‘ Hall" 祖堂集) (952): see YANAGIDA Seizan (ed), Sodōshū, Zengaki sōsho 4, Kyoto: Chūbun, 1984.
22. This term is from Buswell 1987:375. For a description of the rites and monastic setting of such a practice, see T Griffith Foulk, "Myth, ritual, and monastic practice in Sòng Ch‘an Buddhism," 1993.
23. One of the earliest examples are the discourse records of Xuědòu Chóngxiǎn 雪竇重顯 (980-1052) (T47.669a713b) & Yuánwù Kèqín 圓悟克勤 (1063-1135) (T47.713b-810c), both best known as the compilers of the Blue Cliff Records (Bìyán lù 碧巖錄).
24. T48.2003.140a11; also called "The Monk Xuědòuxian‘s 100 Verses on Old Cases" (Xuědòuxiǎn héshàng bǎizésònggǔ 雪竇顯和尚百則頌古): see Foulk 2000: 19+20. The term appears only once, in case 64, immediately following case 63, Nánquán and the cat. See Foulk 2000: 19 f.
25. Gōng’àn (公案); Kor kungan (공안 ); Jap kōan (コウアン); Viet công án; lit, a public notice, issued by, or dealt with by a Chinese government office. Chán used it to refer to a specific Buddhist meditation method (to distinguish it from the traditional Indian methods of samatha-vipaṥyanā). Koans "usually consists of the presentation of a problem drawn from classical texts, or from teaching records and hagiographies of Táng and Sòng period Chinese Chán masters. After the case is presented, a question is asked regarding a key phrase (huàtóu 話頭) in the story, which usually presents a position that contradicts accepted Buddhist doctrinal positions or everyday logic. Its purpose is not to elicit a rational answer, but to serve as a focal point for a dynamic form of contemplation, which results in a non-dualistic experience." (AC Muller: http://buddhism-dict.net/cgi-bin/xpr-ddb.pl?51.xml+id(‗b516c6848‘).
26. For a historical background of gong’an in China and Japan, see Heine & Wright The Kōan: Texts and Contexts in Zen Buddhism, 2000.
27. 今時學道者多不自疑。卻疑他人。所以道。大疑之下必有大悟。(T47.1998A.886a27-28); Jap tr: Chūgokuzenshūshi 100.
28. Xū zhī yí yǐ xìn wéi tǐ, wù yǐ yí wéi yòng; xìn yòu shífēn, yí yǒu shífēn; yí de shífēn, wù de shifēn; 須知疑以信為體。悟以疑為用。信有十分。疑有十分。疑得十分。悟得十分。(TX70.1401.707a8-9).
29. The basic source for Dahui‘s life is Dàhuì pǔjué chánshī niánpǔ 大慧普覺禪師年谱 (Chronological biography of Dahui), compiled by his disciple, Zǔyǒng 祖咏. There is also an inscription written by Zhāng Jùn 張浚, Dàhuì pǔjué chánshī tǎmíng 大慧普覺禪師塔銘 compiled by Zuyong, incl in Dàhuì pǔjué chánshī yǔlù 大慧普覺禪師語錄 (T1998a = 47.811b-943a, esp 836-837). The Dialogue of Pointing to the Moon, Zhǐyuè lù Chih-yueh lu 指月錄, compiled by Chu Ju-chi Qúrǔjì of the Ming Qúrǔjì 瞿汝稷, also contains some additional information not found in the above, chuan 31 (T4.2097-2106 of the Taipei repr ed). See McRae 2003: 123-126, which is based on Levering 1978. For Dahui‘s correspondences, see http://iriz.hanazono.ac.jp/archive/dahuishu.zip. For a summary, see also http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dahui_Zonggao.
30. Bìyán Lù 碧巖錄; Jap Hekigan roku (ヘキガンロク); Kor Byeogam nok (벽암록); Viet Bích nham lục. A collection of 100 gong’an 公案, orig compiled by the 4th-generation Yunmen 雲門 monk Xuedou Zhongxian 雪竇 重顯 (980-1052) and later commented on by the 11th-cent monk Yuánwù Kèqín 圓悟克勤 (1063-1135). As an outstanding Chán literary work, it is a central object of study for later kānhuà (看話) practitioners. (T 2003.- 48.139a-292a). For the text, see http://perso.ens-lyon.fr/eric.boix/Koan/Hekiganroku/index.html.
31. Zhàozhōu Cóngshěn 趙州從諗 (778-897), Táng Chán master in the lineage of Nányuè Huáiràng 南嶽懷讓 (677-744), and direct pupil of Nánquán Pǔyuàn 南泉普願 (748-835): T2036.49.481c28.
32. Vitakka,sakhra,sahna. MA explains sakhra here as condition, cause or root, and takes the compound to mean "stopping the cause of the thought." The Chinese Āgama version, MĀ 101 = T1.588b26, however, instructs that one "should use intention and volition to gradually decrease the (unwholesome) thoughts" (dāngyǐ sīxíng jiànjiǎn qí niàn 當以思行漸減其念). This is accomplished by investigating the unwholesome thought thus: "What is the cause? What is the cause of its cause?" and so on. MA explains that such an investigation would loosen the mind from the flow of evil thoughts, eventually ending them. This is perhaps the most important and interesting of all the methods; hence, the title of the Sutta.
33. Wǔdēng huìyuán (五燈會元 "Compendium of the Five Lamps," 1252 or 1253), Beijing, Zhonghua Shuju, 1984: 44; Zǔtáng jí (late 10th cent) Loyan (Henan): Zhong Zhou, 2001: vol 2; Jǐngdé zhuàndēng lù 景德傳燈錄 vol 3 (T51.2076.196-467); Wúménguān case 41 (T48.2005). See also McRae, The Northern School and the Formation of the Early Ch’an Buddhism, 1986: 15 f
34. Wǔ Zétiān‘s cousin‘s son Zong Qinke created a number of new characters in 689, from which she chose the character 2 herself, and which thenceforth became taboo for others. The orig character was prob orig 照.
35. The characer 曌 was formed by contracting the last two characters of her name Wǔ Zétiān 武則天
36. On a study of Tathāgata Chán & patriarch Chán, see YÜ, Chün-fang, "Ch‘an education in the Sung," 1989; K Kimura, "Bodhidharma‘s practice of recompense and formation of Chan Buddhism," 1998.
37. On the interesting notion of "production of history," see David William Cohen 1994: xiii-xxv, esp xv-xvi. It is a convenient term for the selective recall, reconstruction, creation or usage of the past with a political agenda. The famous term is based on the simile someone combing‘s one‘s hair to make oneself presentable, as stated in this passage: "almost every morning…had combed Camella‘s hair into a bun, to disguise the spot, a six inch bald spot on the back of her head." (Cohen 1994: 10).
38. The Mahāyāna generally regard "enlightenment" as being always present and perfect, needing only to be uncovered. The Chin term for "enlightenment" is usu wù 悟, Kor oh, Jap satori (from vb satoru, 悟/さとる, "to know, understand"). The Jap satori is used interchangeably with kenshō (見性). The point is that the East Asian 悟, oh, satori, kenshō, etc are not syn with the early Indian Buddhist term bodhi (ts). Even pútí 菩提, which is Chin for bodhi, does not always refer to the early Indian idea. Generally, I refer to "enlightenment" in the Chán context or "Chán enlightenment," and "awakening" (bodhi) to the early Buddhist context. See Foulk, "The form and function of koan literature," 2000: 41 f.
39. Shénhuǐ yǔlù 神會語錄. See Hu Shih (ed), Shen-Hui Ho-Shang I-Chi 神會和尚遺集 (1930) & Suzuki (ed), Ho-tse Shen-Hui Ch’an-Shih Yulu 荷澤神會禪師語錄 (1934).
40. Known as the Poet Buddha (shīfó 詩佛), was a Táng Dynasty Chinese poet, musician, painter and statesman. See http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Wang-Wei.
41. Guīfēng Zōngmì 圭峰宗密: see PN Gregory 1987: 279 f. At 24, Zōngmì met the Chán master Suí-zhōu Dàoyuán 遂州道圓 and trained in Chán for 2-3 years, receiving Dàoyuán‘s seal in 807, when he was ordained as a monk. (There are no records of Tao-yüan other than Zōngmì‘s testimony. Zōngmì traced his Chán lineage to Hézé Shénhuì (680-758) and Huìnéng (638-713), and referred to this lineage as the Hézé.) In his autobiographical summary, he states that it was the apocryphal Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment (Yuánjuéjīng 圓覺經) which led him to enlightenment, his "mind-ground opened thoroughly…its [the scripture‘s] meaning was as clear and bright as the heavens" (qu in Peter N Gregory, 2002: 33) Zōngmì‘s "sudden enlightenment" after reading only 2-3 pages of the sutra had a profound impact upon his subsequent scholarly career. He taught the necessity of scripture studies in Chán and was highly critical of what he saw as the antinomianism of the Hóngzhōu school 洪州宗 derived from Mǎzǔ Dàoyī 馬祖道一 (709-788) which practised "entrusting oneself to act freely according to the nature of one‘s feelings." (Gregory 2002: 19). Zōngmì kept to his Confucian moral values throughout and continued to integrate them with Buddhism (op cit 293-294). It was Zōngmì‘s association with the powerful that led to his downfall in 835 in an event known as the "Sweet Dew Incident" (Gānlù zhī biàn 甘露之变). A high official and friend of Zōngmì, Lĭxùn (d 835), plotted with emperor Wenzong to curb the power of the court eunuchs by massacring them all. The plot failed and Lĭxùn 李訓 fled to Mt Chung-nan (Zhōngnán shān 終南山) seeking refuge with Zōngmì. Lĭxùn was quickly captured and executed. Zōngmì, too, was arrested and tried for treason. Impressed with Zōngmì‘s bravery in the face of execution, the eunuch generals pardoned him. Nothing is known about his activities after this. See Gregory 2002: 85-90.
42. Also written either as 慧能 or 惠能. He is sometimes, but rarely, known as Cáoxī Huìnéng 曹溪慧能: Cáoxī was the village in Guǎngdōng 廣東 (south China), where he was the abbot of Bǎolín sì 寶林寺.
43. Dà bānnièpán jīng 大般涅槃經 (Nirvāṇa Sūtra), T12.374.365-606. Accessible at http://www.cbeta.org/- result/T12/T12n0374.htm
44. 中華傳心地禪門師資承襲圖 "Chart of the Master-Disciple Succession of the CháĂŒn Gate that Transmits the Mind Ground in China" (TX63.1225.31b13-14).
45. Vajra-c,chedikā Prajnā,pāramitā Sūtra (Jīngāng bōrě bōluómì jīng 金剛般若波羅蜜經), Skt ed Vaidya: http://www.uwest.edu/sanskritcanon/Sutra/roman/Sutra51.html. Taishō: T8.235.748-752. Kumārajīva‘s tr: http://www2.fodian.net/BaoKu/FoJingWenInfo.aspx?ID=T0235.
46. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mogao_Caves. Sadly, today, the desert is rapidly swallowing the Mogao area, and the caves are in serious danger of being lost: see http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/the-gatheringsandstorm-encroaching-desert-missing-water-399653.htm
47. 六祖壇經 Liùzŭ tán jīng. For refs, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platform_Sutra. For Chin text: http://www.hfu.edu.tw/~bauruei/5rso/texts/6zen/te55.htm & http://www.fgs.org.tw:81/gate/gb/www.fgs.org.tw/master/masterA/library/ebook/sutra/sixth-huinang/default.htm. For tr, see The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch: the text of the Tung-Huang Manuscript tr Philip B Yampolsky 1967 (intro & nn omitted).
48. Héshang Móhēyǎn 和尚摩訶衍, which actually simply means "Mahāyāna monk," and not a name. For his teachings, see Luis O Gómez 1983. For other refs, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo_Ho_Yen.
49. Shénhuì‘s own polemical and pejorative name for those whom he felt had no right to the spirit of Bodhidharma‘s teachings. The point is that the term "Southern School" is rarely used. Indeed, the pre-sectarian Northern School masters represented the entirety of early Chán, albeit a diverse company, at the beginning of the 8th century. The Chán communities of Cháng‘ān and Luòyáng referred to their own teaching as the "East Mountain teaching" (Dōngshān zōng 東山宗) or the Laṅkâvatāra school (Léngqié zōng 楞伽宗)
50. Chan begins to denote a specific doctrinal and meditative ideology around the time of Hui Neng 慧能 (638-713). Although Chán tradition describes a transmission by five patriarchs culminating in Hui Neng as the sixth patriarch, as noted above, that transmission is more fiction than fact. Hui Neng‘s followers established the Southern School of Chán, which unleashed a polemical tirade against the Northern School. Since the Northern School disappeared about a thousand years ago, our only source of information on these schools had been the prejudiced accounts of the Southern school until the discovery at Dunhuang early in the twentieth century of Northern School documents. We now know that many different versions of lineage histories were circulated, and, more importantly, that the positions attributed to the Northerners by their Southern rivals were grossly inaccurate and unfair. In fact, the Northern School had initially been the more successful of the two, but its success led to its ultimate ruination, since its growing dependence on Imperial patronage made it a vulnerable target during times of Imperial persecution of Buddhism. The Southern School, because it had taken root in remote areas less affected by actions of the Central government, survived the persecutions relatively intact." (Lusthaus 1998: 13 f). For transmission lineages see Lamotte 1988a:206-212, 696-699.
51. "Record of the Dharma-Jewel Through the Generations" or "Record of the Transmission of the DharmaTreasure Through the Ages." This work should be distinguished from the earlier Lìdào sānbǎo jì 歷代三寶紀 T2034) by Fèi Zhǎngfáng 費長房 (d after 598), completed in 598
52. Táng zhōngyuè shāmén Fǎrú chánshī xíngzhuàng 唐中嶽沙門法如禪師行狀 (Epitaph for the Táng Śramaṇa of the Central Peak, Chán master Fărú), in Jīnshí xùbiān 金石續編 6:2a-b; see YANAGIDA Seizan, Shoki Zenshū shisho no kenkyū (Research on early Chán historiographical texts), Kyoto: Hōzōkan, 1967: 487-496.
53. Bodhidharma‘s biography, included in the mid-7th cent Xù gāosēng zhuàn 續高僧傳 (Further Biographies of Eminent Monks), he is portrayed as transmitting the Laṅkāvatāra S to Huìkě (T50.2060.552b).
54. 景德傳燈錄 "The Jingde Era Record of the Transmission of the Lamp," T2076.51.196-467
55. the Kāiyuán 開元 period of Táng emperor Xuánzōng (713-341), when the monk Zhìshēng 智昇 (669-740) made a number of important compilations, incl the Kāiyuán shìjiào lù 開元釋教錄 (T 2154.55.477-724, 20 fasc) (The Kāiyuán Record of Shakyamuni‘s Teachings) and the Jí zhūjīng lǐchàn yí 集諸經禮懺儀 (an anthology of repentance rituals). This "reappearance" is due to the common 7th-and 8th-century practice of choosing the title for a work composed in China from among works listed in the catalogs as no longer extant. See Buswell 1989: 33-40/
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